1. Creating a Positive Workforce Origins, Benefits, Costs Timothy A. Judge University of Florida ISPI Annual Conference Dallas, TX April 9, 2006

2. 2 1.Understand the importance/relevance of a positive self-concept at work 2.Understand the sources of positive self- concept 3.Learn how to select positive individuals to achieve maximum performance 4.Discover whether there are limitations on positivity at work--can one be too positive? Learning Objectives

3. 3 1: Importance/Relevance Positive Self-Concept at Work Positivity is valued in Western society –Positive psychology movement –Benefits of positive thinking Most fundamental aspect of positive self- concept may be self-esteem –26,000+ studies on self-esteem –990 in 2005, or 3 published each day –Still, there is a controversy over whether self-esteem is really important

4. 4 Self-esteem most widely studied trait Baumeister et al. (2003): –“Self-esteem is thus not a major predictor or cause of almost anything” Crocker and Knight (2005): –“Although high self-esteem produces pleasant feelings and enhanced initiative, it does not cause high academic achievement, good job performance, or leadership” 1: Importance/Relevance Positive Self-Concept at Work

5. 5 We’ve done work on a broad positive trait called core self-evaluations (CSE) People with high CSE –Have high self-esteem (believe themselves worthy and worthwhile), believe they are generally competent and capable, believe they control their environment (vs. opposite), and are generally positive and optimistic 1: Importance/Relevance Positive Self-Concept at Work

6. 6 We’ve consistently found that high CSE (self-positive) people are more satisfied with their jobs and with their lives, and perform better at work Why? –Positive people set higher goals and are more committed to them (Erez & Judge, JAP, 2001) –Positive people seek and attain more challenging jobs (Judge et al., JAP, 1998, JAP, 2000) 1: Importance/Relevance Positive Self-Concept at Work

7. 7 False rejects False hires Right rejects Above Average Performance Below Average Performance Below Average CSEAbove Average CSE 1: Importance/Relevance Positive Self-Concept at Work Right hires

8. 8 CSES Core Self-Evaluations Scale 1.I am confident I get the success I deserve in life. 2.Sometimes I feel depressed. (r) 3.When I try, I generally succeed. 4.Sometimes when I fail I feel worthless. (r) 5.I complete tasks successfully. 6.Sometimes, I do not feel in control of my work. (r) 7.Overall, I am satisfied with myself. 8.I am filled with doubts about my competence. (r) 9.I determine what will happen in my life. 10.I do not feel in control of my success in my career. (r) 11.I am capable of coping with most of my problems. 12.There are times when things look pretty bleak and hopeless to me. (r) Source: Judge, Erez, Bono, & Thoresen (Personnel Psychology, 2003) r=reverse scored

9. 9 Validity Relation of CSES to Criteria JS=Job Satisfaction; LS=Life Satisfaction; JP=Job Performance Correlation (uncorrected) Source: Judge, Erez, Bono, & Thoresen (Personnel Psychology, 2003)

10. 10 Issue #2 Is it always good to be positive? Are there times when it’s good to be negative?

11. 11 Issue #2 Is it always good to be positive?

12. 12 Issue #2 Is it always good to be positive? Are there times when it’s good to be negative? –Perhaps we need to distinguish between anxiety and depression (vigilance vs. melancholy)

13. 13 Addressing Issue #2 Predicting Stress/Stressors Role Ambiguity Life Stress Somatic Complaints Neuroticism -.05.30** Extraversion -.23**.00 Openness.08.00 Agreeableness -.21*.07 Conscientiousness -.07 -.04 CSES -.21 * -.23 *.33 ** Notes: N=167. † p <.10. * p <.05. ** p <.01. Source: Judge and Erez (in preparation)

14. 14 Addressing Issue #2 Predicting Job Performance Overall Job Performance Contextual Performance Task Performance Neuroticism.16.31**.20 * Extraversion.05 -.02.05 Openness -.07 -.11 Agreeableness -.05.13 -.07 Conscientiousness.16 †.06.23 ** CSES.32 **.39 **.28 ** Notes: N=164. † p <.10. * p <.05. ** p <.01. Source: Judge and Erez (in preparation)

15. 15 Do positive people capitalize on advantages bestowed upon them (and those they earn) at the onset of adulthood? Studied using NLS where individuals have been followed over period of 27 years, first entering study in 1979 when age 14-22 and measuring average income 1994-2002 Addressing Issue #2 How CSE Works

16. 16 Measure of CSE in NLS Constructed from Items Measured 1979-2002 I have little control over the things that happen to me (reversed) There is little I can do to change many of the important things in my life (reversed) What happens to me in the future mostly depends on me I feel that I am a person of worth, on an equal basis with others I feel that I have a number of good qualities All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure (reversed) I feel I do not have much to be proud of (reversed) I wish I could have more respect for myself (reversed) I’ve been depressed (reversed) I’ve felt hopeful about the future What happens to me is of my own doing When I make plans, I am almost certain to make them work

17. 17 Predicted Income 1994-2002 Parents’ Education in 1979 Source: Judge and Hurst (in preparation) Addressing Issue #2 Parents’ Education and Earnings

18. 18 Predicted Income 1994-2002 Parents’ Occupational Prestige 1979 Roofer Carpenter Musician Therapist Economist Waiter Plumber Nurse(RN) Manager Chemist Source: Judge and Hurst (in preparation) Addressing Issue #2 Parents’ Occupation and Earnings

19. 19 Childhood Poverty 1979 Predicted Income 1994-2002 Source: Judge and Hurst (in preparation) Addressing Issue #2 Childhood Poverty and Earnings

20. 20 Predicted Income 1994-2002 Years of Education Source: Judge and Hurst (in preparation) Addressing Issue #2 Own Education and Earnings

21. 21 Predicted Income 1994-2002 High School Grade Point Average Source: Judge and Hurst (in preparation) Addressing Issue #2 High School GPA and Earnings

22. 22 Predicted Income 1994-2002 SAT Score Source: Judge and Hurst (in preparation) Addressing Issue #2 SAT Scores and Earnings

23. 23 Issue #2 Summary: Is it always good to be positive? CSES (positive self-regard) predicts most criteria Surprisingly, CSE better predicts stressors, stress, and strain compared to measures of neuroticism CSE is an important moderator of translating early advantages into later success

24. 24 Controversy #3 Can One Be Too Positive? Is positivity always good? (Judge & Ilies, AME, 2004) –Harmful effects of self-esteem pursuit –Costs of self-deception –Extreme self-positivity=narcissism Definition: self-love, or an exceptional interest in and admiration for yourself Narcissism correlates r=.35 with self-esteem Many controversies about narcissism in psychology (e.g., costs-benefits) Very little study of narcissism in OB

25. 25 Controversy #3 Can One Be Too Positive? DSM-IV: narcissism=grandiose self-regard; exaggeration of talents, skills –May lead to enhanced view of self with respect to various work outcomes Collected data in two samples relating self and other ratings of –Leadership –Workplace deviance –Task and contextual performance

26. 26 Controversy #3 Can One Be Too Positive? Self Rating (SF) Supervisor Rating (SP) SF-SP Difference Neuroticism -.01 -.11 0.90 Extraversion -.01.01 0.01 Openness.25 **.17 * 8.93 ** Agreeableness.19 ** -.02 2.74 Conscientiousness.56 **.09 29.35 ** Narcissism.05 -.25 ** 5.53 ** Notes: Criterion=Contextual performance. * p <.05. ** p <.01. Source: Judge, LePine, and Rich (in press, JAP)

27. 27 Controversy #3 Can One Be Too Positive? Self Rating (SF) Supervisor Rating (SP) SF-SP Difference Neuroticism -.21** -.09 3.51** Extraversion.11.08 1.45 Openness.29**.16 10.22** Agreeableness.12 -.01 1.15 Conscientiousness.23**.06 4.09* Narcissism.22** -.20* 7.09** Notes: Criterion=Leadership effectiveness. * p <.05. ** p <.01. Source: Judge, LePine, and Rich (in press, JAP)

28. 28 Issue #4 Can Self-Concept Be Developed? Self-esteem and emotional stability show signs of both continuity and change Even if one accepts that self-concept does change: –Change must be predictable –Change must be lasting

29. 29 In graph, individuals differ in self-esteem, but by the same token, self-esteem changes (people increase in self-esteem over time) Issue #4 Can Self-Concept Be Developed?

30. 30 Issue #4 Can Self-Concept Be Developed? From: Trzesniewski, Donnellan, & Robins, JPSP, 2003..60 ---.54.43.60 Note: Orange numbers are average stability across many traits according to Roberts & DEL Vecchio (JPSP, 2000)

31. 31 Issue #4 Can Self-Concept Be Developed? Neuroticism decreases for women but not for men Young women are dramatically more neurotic than young men, but these differences become fairly small by age 60  Women Men Source: Srivastava, John, & Gosling, JPSP, 2003

32. 32 We would like to conclude with an opinion on the balance between continuity and change in personality across the life course. On balance, the empirical evidence for continuity and change in personality supports a cumulative continuity model of personality development (Roberts & Caspi, in press). That is, with time and age people become more adept at interacting with their environment in ways that promote the consistency of personality. Personality becomes more consistent with age, reaching a peak of consistency in the 5th or 6th decade of life. This is not to downplay the importance of environmental factors in adulthood, nor to argue that change does not occur throughout midlife. Ample evidence shows that social contexts, role experiences, and changing historical and cultural norms affect personality development. But when pitted against one another, the forces of consistency outweigh the forces of change, and with time and experience the battle between change and consistency is won out by the forces of continuity. Caspi & Roberts, Psychological Inquiry, 2001 Issue #4 Can Self-Concept Be Developed?

33. 33 Issue #4 Can Self-Concept Be Developed? Forces that work against change –self-verification –ego defensive threats to self-esteem Crocker argues that self-esteem is unstable when it is –Contingent –Especially contingent on external vs. internal things EX: other’s approval, appearance, competence IN: family support, virtue, “God’s love”

34. 34 Issue #4 Can Self-Concept Be Developed? Source: Judge, Cable, and Klinger (in progress)

35. 35 Selection Implications Currently, using 12-item CSES in pre- screening applicants for positions in child- care center, regional health and fitness center Measure is free, but I’d love to work with any organization that wants to conduct a concurrent validation study Does not appear to have adverse impact against women or minorities

36. 36 Conclusions Issue #1: Does positive self-regard matter? Positive traits do matter Issue #2: Is it always good to be positive? Effects of positive self-concept appear to be general and practically meaningful Issue #3: Can one be too positive? If by positive self-regard one means narcissism, one can be too positive Issue #4: Can self-concept change? There are limits to which this is practical

37. 37 http://www.ufstudies.net/tim/CCL/index_UM.htm Link to Presentation Contents CCL 2006 Bono & Judge - European Journal of Work and Organisational Psychology (2003) Judge et al. - Journal of Personality & Social Psychology (2002) Judge et al. - Personnel Psychology (2003) Judge & Bono - Journal of Applied Psychology (2001) Judge, LePine, & Rich - Journal of Applied Psychology (in press) Judge & Ilies - Academy of Management Executive (2004)

38. 38 General Q & A