1. Strain theories

2. Two kinds of “Strain” Anomie (Emile Durkheim): Society cannot regulate “natural” appetites of individuals – Rapid social change breaks down social controls Strain (Merton) – Social change not required to explain some types of crime – Individual “appetites” originate in the culture – Heavy emphasis on material wealth – Social structure limits the ability of certain groups to satisfy this appetite – Result: pressure on certain persons to engage in deviant behavior

3. Imbalance between goals and means American culture is criminogenic – Strong forces promote goal of material success – Weak forces promote culturally accepted means Protestant work ethic Honesty Education Delayed gratification Egalitarianism – everyone has an equal chance to gain wealth – If you can’t it’s your own fault – perhaps you’re “lazy”

4. Strain and lower classes Lower classes may have fewer opportunities to gain wealth through accepted means – Limits imposed by social structure - not by talents or efforts Severe strain on lower class persons – Lack of socially acceptable “means” to achieve ends – Excessive emphasis on the “ends” - to become wealthy – Little reward for following institutionalized means – Those who use deviant means are not punished Overall social consequence of strain – Merton - crime is a rational choice – a way to adapt to strain Higher crime rates in the lower classes due to restricted opportunities

5. Individual responses to strain Conformity (accept goals and means) – In stable society, most persons will keep trying even if they do not succeed Innovation (accept goals, seek out new means) – Non-criminal adaptations – training, education – Criminal adaptations – steal, deal drugs Ritualism (reject goals, accept means) – Achieve minimum success Retreatism (reject goals and means) – Drop out – vagrants Rebellion (replace socially accepted values with new values) – Political rebellion, spiritualism

6. Explaining gang delinquency - Cohen Mostly not caused by strain – Non-utilitarian, malicious, negativistic (vandalism) Goals are intangible – Status and self-worth Who? – Youths without ascribed status (from a poor family) – Youths who cannot gain achieved status (competition with others) Cohen’s theory similar to Merton’s “rebellion” – Form that “rebellion” takes is shaped by a group - not just by an individual

7. Explaining gang delinquency – Cloward and Ohlin Goals are both tangible (Merton) and intangible (Cohen) Goal of serious delinquents: conspicuous consumption – Fast cars, fancy clothes, “swell dames” – Clashes with conventional values Serious delinquents are looked down on: – What they do not want (middle-class lifestyle) – What they do want If they lack licit and illicit opportunities to get what they want, may form a violent or “conflict” gang to express their anger

8. Public policy adaptations of strain theory Juvenile Delinquency Prevention and Control Act of 1961 – Improve education – Create job opportunities – Organize lower-class families – Provide services to individuals, gangs, families War on Poverty - Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 – Crime and poverty based on social structure – Original intent to change social structure – Implementation geared to change poor people

9. Criticizing strain theory - Kornhauser Strain is evenly spread through society – Rich and poor always want more – Economic gain not a cultural value - it is intrinsic – Hard work (Protestant ethic) is a very weak value, easily overcome by gain motive – Criminals and delinquents not strained Have low aspirations (what they want) and low expectations (what they expect to get)

10. Defending strain theory -- Bernard Strain not evenly spread through society – Concentrated in lower classes Delinquents do have a gap between expectations and aspirations Strain is primarily structural – not cultural – Illusion of street-corner men who generate “public fictions” to justify themselves: “too much of a man for any woman” – These excuses are misinterpreted as components of a “lower-class lifestyle Adaptations described by Merton are real – Simple reactions to socially structured situations that individuals cannot control or overcome

11. Meanings of strain -- Cullen Strain means two different things – Characteristics of a society - doesn’t provide legitimate means to achieve culturally valued ends – Individual feelings of frustration, anxiety, depression that can flow from above Structural inequalities encourage deviance – Unequal legitimate opportunities caused by social structure Deviant response varies according to “structuring variables” – Social/economic circumstances – Technological advances – Specific opportunities (e.g., Columbian drug cartel) – Individual psychological responses It’s the “feelings” that directly cause crime Social structural inequality  frustration  crime

12. Individual strain -- Agnew Negative relationships & stressful life events – Juveniles stressed by “noxious”, negative interpersonal relationships – If home or school is the locus, may not be able to escape Delinquency and drug use a way to cope or manage the strain – May provide “relief” from stresses

13. Societal strain -- Messner and Rosenfeld Agree with Merton that high levels of crime explained by cultural pressures for tangible success BUT - expanding opportunities may cause more crime unless culture changes – Newly “enabled” persons lose their excuse to stay poor Economic goals override influence of social institutions – Families, schools, politics – all are subservient to the economy Recommendations – Support families with child care and flexible work schedules – Disentangle education from worker training – Protect citizens from the marketplace with social safety nets – Engage young people in community service – Give greater social prominence to goals other than material success