1. EECS 274 Computer Vision Linear Filters and Edges

2. Linear filters and edges Linear filters Scale space Gaussian pyramid and wavelets Edges Reading: Chapters 4 and 5 of FP, Chapter 3 of S

3. Linear filters General process: –Form new image whose pixels are a weighted sum of original pixel values, using the same set of weights at each point Properties –Output is a linear function of the input –Output is a shift-invariant function of the input (i.e. shift the input image two pixels to the left, the output is shifted two pixels to the left) Example: smoothing by averaging –form the average of pixels in a neighborhood Example: smoothing with a Gaussian –form a weighted average of pixels in a neighborhood Example: finding a derivative –form a weighted average of pixels in a neighborhood

4. Convolution Represent these weights as an image, h h is usually called the kernel Operation is called convolution –it’s associative Notation in textbook: Notice weird order of indices –all examples can be put in this form –it’s a result of the derivation expressing any shift-invariant linear operator as a convolution

5. Convolution

6. Smoothing by averaging

7. Smoothing with a Gaussian Smoothing with an average actually doesn’t compare at all well with a defocussed lens –Most obvious difference is that a single point of light viewed in a defocussed lens looks like a fuzzy blob; but the averaging process would give a little square –Narrow vertical and horizontal bards known as ringing effects A Gaussian gives a good model of a fuzzy blob

8. An isotropic Gaussian The picture shows a smoothing kernel proportional to (which is a reasonable model of a circularly symmetric fuzzy blob)

9. Smoothing with a Gaussian

10. Differentiation and convolution Recall Now this is linear and shift invariant, so must be the result of a convolution We could approximate this as (which is obviously a convolution; it’s not a very good way to do things, as we shall see)

11. Finite differences Partial derivative in y axis, respond strongly to horizontal edges Partial derivative in x axis, respond strongly to vertical edges

12. Spatial filter Different approximate operators

13. Roberts operator One of the earliest edge detection algorithm by Lawrence Roberts Two kernels: Symmetric, tuned to diagonal

14. Sobel operator One of the earliest edge detection algorithm by Irwin Sobel

15. Noise Simplest noise model –independent stationary additive Gaussian noise –the noise value at each pixel is given by an independent draw from the same normal probability distribution Issues –this model allows noise values that could be greater than maximum camera output or less than zero –for small standard deviations, this isn’t too much of a problem - it’s a fairly good model –independence may not be justified (e.g. damage to lens) –may not be stationary (e.g. thermal gradients in the ccd)

16. sigma=1 sigma=16 Additive Gaussian noise

17. Finite differences and noise Finite difference filters respond strongly to noise –obvious reason: image noise results in pixels that look very different from their neighbors Generally, the larger the noise the stronger the response What is to be done? –intuitively, most pixels in images look quite a lot like their neighbors –this is true even at an edge; along the edge they’re similar, across the edge they’re not –suggests that smoothing the image should help, by forcing pixels different to their neighbors (=noise pixels?) to look more like neighbors

18. Finite differences responding to noise Increasing noise -> (this is zero mean additive Gaussian noise) Difference operation is strongly influenced by noise (the image is increasingly grainy) σ=0.03σ=0.09

19. Smoothed noise Smoothing stationary additive Gaussian noise results in signals where pixel values tend to increasingly similar to the value of neighboring pixels (as filter kernel causes correlation)

20. Smoothing reduces noise Generally expect pixels to “be like” their neighbors –surfaces turn slowly –relatively few reflectance changes Generally expect noise processes to be independent from pixel to pixel Implies that smoothing suppresses noise, for appropriate noise models Scale –the parameter in the symmetric Gaussian –as this parameter goes up, more pixels are involved in the average –and the image gets more blurred –and noise is more effectively suppressed

21. The effects of smoothing Each row shows smoothing with Gaussians of different width Each column shows images with different Gaussian noise Effects of smoothing

22. Gradients and edges Points of sharp change in an image are interesting: –change in reflectance –change in object –change in illumination –noise Sometimes called edge points General strategy –determine image gradient –now mark points where gradient magnitude is particularly large wrt neighbors (ideally, curves of such points) In one dimension, the 2 nd derivative of a signal is zero when the derivative magnitude is extremal  a good place to look for edge is where the second derivative is zero

23. Smoothing and differentiation Issue: noise –smooth before differentiation –two convolutions to smooth, then differentiate? –actually, no - we can use a derivative of Gaussian filter because differentiation is convolution, and convolution is associative Smoothed derivative of Gaussian filter in the x-direction Smoothed derivative of Gaussian filter in the y-direction

24. The scale of the smoothing filter affects derivative estimates, and also the semantics of the edges recovered 1 pixel 3 pixels 7 pixels Scale of smoothing

25. Image gradient Gradient equation: Represents direction of most rapid change in intensity Gradient direction: The edge strength is given by the gradient magnitude

26. Theory of edge detection Ideal edge Unit step function: Image intensity (brightness):

27. Partial derivatives (gradients): Squared gradient: Edge Magnitude: Edge Orientation: Rotationally symmetric, non-linear operator (normal of the edge) Theory of edge detection

28. Image intensity (brightness): Partial derivatives (gradients): Laplacian: Rotationally symmetric, linear operator zero-crossing Theory of edge detection

29. Discrete edge operators How can we differentiate a discrete image? Finite difference approximations: Convolution masks :

30. Second order partial derivatives: Laplacian : Convolution masks : or Discrete edge operators (more accurate) 141 4-204 141 010 1-41 010

31. Effects of noise Consider a single row or column of the image –Plotting intensity as a function of position gives a signal Where is the edge?

32. Solution: Smooth first Look for peaks in

33. Derivative theorem of convolution … saves us one operation

34. Laplacian of Gaussian (LoG) Laplacian of Gaussian operator Where is the edge? Zero-crossings of bottom graph ! Laplacian of Gaussian By Marr and Hildreth

35. 2D Gaussian edge operators Laplacian of GaussianGaussianDerivative of Gaussian (DoG) Mexican Hat (Sombrero) is the Laplacian operator: Can be substituted with two DoGs

36. sigma=2 sigma=4 contrast=1contrast=4LOG zero crossings scale threshold How to find best scale and threshold?

37. We still have unfortunate behavior at corners and trihedral areas Ringing effects LoG is not oriented (isotropic)

38. Three major issues: 1) The gradient magnitude at different scales is different; which should we choose? 2) The gradient magnitude is large along thick trail; how do we identify the significant points? 3) How do we link the relevant points up into curves? σ=1 pixelσ=2 pixel From thick trails to curves (formed by points)

39. Wish to mark points along the curve where the magnitude is biggest Looking for a maximum along a slice normal to the curve (non-maximum suppression) These points should form a curve Two algorithmic issues: at which point is the maximum where is the next one? Gradient-based edge detectors Trail of large gradient magnitude Appropriate cutting direction Peak in this direction

40. Non-maximum suppression Check if pixel is local maximum along gradient direction –requires checking interpolated pixels p and r

41. Predicting the next edge point Assume the marked point is an edge point. Then we construct the tangent to the edge curve (which is normal to the gradient at that point) and use this to predict the next points (here either s or t) Edge following: edge points occur along curve like chains Edge following t

42. fine scale, high threshold σ=1 pixel coarse scale, high threshold σ=4 pixels coarse scale, low threshold σ=4 pixels Edge points

43. Canny edge operator Smooth image I with 2D Gaussian: Find local edge normal directions for each pixel Compute edge magnitudes Locate edges by finding zero-crossings along the edge normal directions (non-maximum suppression)

44. Original image Magnitude of gradient Canny edge detector

45. After non-maximum suppression Canny edge detector

46. Canny with original The choice of depends on desired behavior –large detects large scale edges –small detects fine features Canny edge detector

47. Difference of Gaussians (DoG) Laplacian of Gaussian can be approximated by the difference between two different Gaussians

48. DoG edge detection (a)(b)(b)-(a)

49. Unsharp masking – = = + a blurred positiveincrease details in bright area

50. Edge thresholding Standard Thresholding: Can only select “strong” edges. Does not guarantee “continuity” (i.e., lead to broken edge curves) Hysteresis based Thresholding (use two thresholds) Example: For “maybe” edges, decide on the edge if neighboring pixel is a strong edge

51. Remaining issues Check that maximum value of gradient value is sufficiently large –drop-outs? use hysteresis use a high threshold to start edge curves and a low threshold to continue them

52. Notes Something nasty is happening at corners Scale affects contrast Edges are not bounding contours

53. Scale space Framework for multi-scale signal processing Define image structure in terms of scale with kernel size, σ Find scale invariant operations See Scale-Space Theory in Computer Vision by Tony Lindeberg

54. Orientation representations The gradient magnitude is affected by illumination changes –but it’s direction isn’t We can describe image patches by the swing of the gradient orientation A variety of specialized corner detector Important types: –constant window small gradient magnitudes –edge window few large gradient magnitudes in one direction –flow window many large gradient magnitudes in one direction –corner window large gradient magnitudes that change

55. Around the corners and in the textured regions, the orientation vector swings sharply

56. Representing windows Types –constant small eigenvalues –edge one medium, one small –flowf one large, one small –corner two large eigenvalues Looking at variations

57. Plotting in ellipses to understand the matrix (variation of gradient) of 3 × 3 window Major and minor axes are along the eigenvectors of H, and the extent corresponds to the size of eigenvalues Orientation field

58. Plotting in ellipses to understand the matrix (variation of gradient) of 5 × 5 window Orientation field

59. Corners Harris corner detector Moravec corner detector SIFT descriptors (more in the next lectures)

60. Filters are templates Applying a filter at some point can be seen as taking a dot- product between the image and some vector Filtering the image is a set of dot products Insight –filters look like the effects they are intended to find –filters find effects they look like convolution is equivalent to taking the dot product of the filter with an image patch derivative of Gaussian used as edge detection

61. Normalized correlation Think of filters of a dot product –now measure the angle –i.e normalized correlation output is filter output, divided by root sum of squares of values over which filter lies –cheap and efficient method for finding patterns Tricks: –ensure that filter has a zero response to a constant region (helps reduce response to irrelevant background) –subtract image average when computing the normalizing constant (i.e. subtract the image mean in the neighborhood) –absolute value deals with contrast reversal

62. Controlling TV set based on normalized correlation score of patterns by Freeman et al, 98 Finding hands

63. Anisotropic scaling Symmetric Gaussian smoothing tends to blur out edges rather aggressively Prefer an oriented smoothing operator that smoothes –aggressively perpendicular to the gradient –little along the gradient Also known as edge preserving smoothing Formulated with diffusion equation

64. Diffusion equation for anisotropic filter PDE that describes fluctuations in a material undergoing diffusion For isotropic filter For anisotropic filter

65. Anisotropic filtering Often used in graphics for textured surface to reduce aliasing effects

66. Anisotropic diffusion Linear isotropic diffusion (simple Gaussian) Nonlinear isotropic diffusion (edge skipping)Nonlinear anisotropic diffusion Perona and Malik 90 Input image with noise

67. Bilateral filtering Preserving edges –Replace pixel’s value by a weighted average of its neighbors in both space and intensity –Controlled by range and spatial parameters One iterationMultiple iterations Tomasi and Manduchi 98