1. PSY 338: Motivation
Chapter 6:
Incentive Motivation

2. Incentive Motivation
The idea that motivation is not just innate but is based primary on external incentives
Can be thought of as mediator (M) that comes between the stimulus characteristics (S) of some goal object and the responses (R) that are directed toward the object
SMR
Indications are these are actually two separate links:
One between the stimulus and mediator and then a second between the mediator and response
SM, MR
More on this theory later (Overmier & Lawry Model)

3. Incentives as energizers
Crespi (1942)
Procedure
Rats running for pellets
Group 1: Initial small reward; then switched from small reward to larger reward
Group 2: initial large reward; then switched from large reward to smaller reward
Group 3: served as a control (no change in reward)
Results
Initially, Group 2 > Group 1
Group 1: Started running faster
Group 2: Started running slower
See next slide 

4. Incentives as energizers
< Preshift >
Postshift >
Crespi (1942)

5. Incentives as energizers
Results
Initially, Group 2 > Group 1
Group 1: Started running faster
Group 2: Started running slower
Interpretation
Different incentive objects affect how hard the organism is willing to perform (motivation) but not the rate of learning as had been previously thought
After 20 trials, all three groups were getting the same amount of reward, yet it was viewed differently depending on the group
Crespi (1942)

6. Incentive Motivation (K)
If a goal can influence behavior even before that goal is reached, then organisms must in some way come to anticipate the availability of the goal
Hull-Spence and rg – sg
Consummatory Response (Rg )
Witnessed response from incentive
Incentive value of goal object could be indexed by the vigor of this response
Stimuli present when Rg occurs will become associated with it (classical conditioning) and tend to elicit Rg directly

7. Incentive Motivation (K)
Hull-Spence and rg – sg
Consummatory Response (Rg)
Rg response does not occur in a vacuum; rats running a maze will be affected by the extent that the stimuli also occur before the organism reaches the goal box will determine whether Rg will be elicited
Of course this would be disruptive; therefore, a fractional anticipatory response is more likely the result

8. rg – sg Mechanism Organism can sense if it is making the Rg
Sensory feedback (Sg) allows for this
This rg – sg mechanism serves to motivate the instrumental responses that must be made in order to get to the goal box and engage in the Rg
This is an entirely mechanical process; through the process of classical conditioning, the stimuli in the environment come to elicit small parts of the final Rg and the Sg from these responses serves to motivate ongoing behavior

9. rg – sg Mechanism
How does previous experience with reward become an incentive?
Spence (1956)
Proposed that environmental cues become associated with rewards
RG changes with the stimuli related to SG
RG becomes more apparent as the organism gets closer to the goal
Seeing the rewarding stimulus results in arousal, rg and sg, motivating approach behavior
As the organism approaches the goal area, more and more stimuli should occur that have been associated with RG

10. rg – sg Mechanism
What if the external stimuli are different at the beginning of the route as compared to the goal box?
Not just based on external cues
The sensations we feel when we are hungry are with us all the way from start to goal and thus they are present when RG occurs and should also elicit a fractional anticipatory response

11. Problems with Anticipatory Response
Spence hypothesized a peripheral nervous system response
He posited that Rg consisted of minute muscular responses and the associated sensory feedback from these muscle contractions
Other researchers found no reliable physiological change with instrumental behavior
They suggest that the response may be CNS not ANS
The change is in activation of some brain region, not an autonomic response

12. Persistence of behavior: RF - SF Mechanism
Why do we persist even after instances of difficulty or failure? Other times we don’t.
Seems to be related to anticipatory responses

13. RF - SF Mechanism
What happens when a rat reaches a goal in which it has been previously rewarded but now finds nothing?
If the rat has been in the situation several times and has been rewarded then incentive motivation has been instituted by the rg – sg mechanism
Amsel & Roussel (1952)
Result is an unlearned frustration response (RF )
Occurs when it discovers all its efforts (fractional anticipatory response) are for naught

14. RF - SF Mechanism Amsel & Roussel (1952)
Used Spence’s idea of anticipatory states to explain inhibition
Frustration motivates avoidance and suppression of approach behavior
Nonreward produces RF - SF mechanism motivating avoidance
Anticipation of RF - SF motivates avoidance

15. RF - SF Mechanism Amsel & Roussel (1952)
Any stimuli present at the time RF occurs will likely become associated with it and if these stimuli also occur early in the sequence of events it will elicit the anticipatory frustration response
As with the rg – sg mechanism, the organism knows it is making these responses based on the feedback stimuli which in this case is referred to as frustration response stimulus feedback (SF)
These partial frustration responses typically cause the animal to stop its present behavior and engage in some other behavior
But not always…
See next slide 

16. Persistence of behavior: RF - SF Mechanism
Amsel (1952): Counterconditioning
Motivation generated by the frustration of nonreward gets channeled into the very response that causes the frustration
The competing responses that would normally develop as a result of this frustration are countered by the situation
The motivation becomes conditioned only to responses that can easily occur
For example, responses leading to the sometimes filled goal box
Thus, RF - SF mechanism serves as a motivator for ongoing behavior

17. Persistence of behavior: RF - SF Mechanism
Amsel (1952): Counterconditioning
Most likely to occur when someone began with a partial reinforcement schedule
Much more persistence than from a continuous reinforcement schedule
During, continuous reinforcement rg – sg builds up; motivating necessary responses to reach goal
When taken away, frustration causes avoidance
During, partial reinforcement rg – sg builds up too; but not as much (slower process)
During, partial reinforcement rf – sf builds up too on the unrewarded trials
Alternating competing and persistent responses are seen from those in these situations

18. Incentives as generators of emotion
Mowrer (1960)
Felt that four primary emotions were involved in incentive motivation
Fear
A drive state (which is negative) occurs during emotion of fear
The emotional responses associated with the state of fear will become connected to any stimuli also present at the time the emotion occurs
Thus, any stimuli present serve as cues to fear that will elicit drive
Conditioned fear motivates organism to make response to escape from the situation containing the fear cues (avoidance behavior)

19. Incentives as generators of emotion
Mowrer (1960)
Hope
Decrease in drive leads to the emotion of hope; cues present at the time hope occurs will become associated with the emotion and will eventually begin to serve as signals that a decrease in drive is imminent
Stimuli that produce the emotion of hope will activate behaviors that will keep the organism in their presence (approach behavior)

20. Incentives as generators of emotion
Mowrer (1960)
Disappointment
Occurs when hope cues that predict a decrease in drive, do not lead to an actual reduction in drive
Negative state that motivates the organism to remove itself from cues that signal disappointment (avoidance behavior)
Relief
This occurs when cues that signal an increase in drive are removed
Thus, stimuli present when fear cues are removed will then become relief signals
Organisms will strive to maintain situations that predict relief (approach behavior)

21. Cognitive Formulations
Tolman (1959)
Behavior is not an automatic response to the environment but has direction and purpose
Expectations will lead to goal oriented behavior
The environment conveys goal-relevant information
Stimuli point to reward or punishment
Expectancy
Key aspect of Tolman’s theory
Incentive objects influence behavior only if they are experienced enough times so that a cognitive expectation is built up

22. Predictability Bolles & Moot (1972)
Felt that cues become incentive motivators to the extent that they predict the arrival or withdrawal of some goal object
A cue takes on motivational control only to the extent that it predicts some future event
Can lead to motivated behaviors
Can cause demotivation as well

23. Overmier & Lawry Model Overmier & Lawry (1979)
These researchers posit that there are two independent systems which act like mediators between environmental stimuli and an organisms response to the stimuli
First system involves a link between the stimulus and mediator (SM)
Second system involves a link between mediator and response (MR)

24. Overmier & Lawry Model Overmier & Lawry (1979)
Incentives have both an energizing and an informational function
Energizing aspect motivates person to respond (first system)
Incentives mediate behavior through informational properties as well; incentives serve as cues that aid in response selection (second system)
Informational aspect seems to be more important
At least this is he case when the two aspects compete for the control of behavior
Incentives alter performance because they provide information about goals

25. Overmier & Lawry Model Overmier & Lawry (1979)
Both systems appear to be connected to secondary reinforcers; these reinforcers play role as they have energizing and response selection properties
For example, money is a secondary reinforcer

26. The Bindra Model Bindra (1968)
Proposed idea that there was a central motive state that activated goal-directed behavior toward incentive objects
Motivational states and emotional states were identical
The organismic state (drive) and the stimuli from the goal object (incentive) combine to produce the central motive state
Innate sensorimotor coordinations prepare us for contact with or escape from the incentive object
This model assumes that incentive stimuli serve both energizing and directional functions

27. The Bindra Model Bindra (1968) Positive Incentives
These lead to approach behavior
Negative Incentives
These lead to avoidance behavior

28. Meaningfulness Klinger (1977)
Posits that incentive motivation is based on relationships
People pursue objects, events, and experiences that are emotionally important for them (meaningful)
We are motivated to obtain or keep incentives that we prize
Incentives & Goals
Incentives are things that are valued; goals are things a person is willing to expand effort to attain
Being committed to a goal requires dedication

29. Meaningfulness Klinger (1977)
Disengagement occurs when a goal is made unreachable
Disengagement Phases
Invigoration
If blocked from reaching a goal; behavior gets stronger for a while
Primitivation
Stereotyped and primitive behavior will result from not reaching goal
Aggression
Very primitive action

30. Meaningfulness Klinger (1977) Depression
Feelings of helplessness and hopelessness
Recovery
Success in obtaining goals in other areas may lead to overall recovery

31. Incentive Aspects of Sexual Motivation
Pheromones
Chemical messengers emitted into the environment that are sexually arousing
Evidence that this is the case with some animals
No direct evidence that this is the case for people

32. Learned Sexual Stimuli
Lopez & Ettenberg (2002)
Procedure
Male rats copulate with female rats in a room with a distinctive odor; 5 trials
Put in isolation in a room with different scent after each trial
Later they were allowed to run down an alley with 3 rooms at the end. One had the scent used in the room they had sex, another a scent of the room they were kept captive in, and a third room had no scent
Results
They ran the quickest to the room with the scent used in the sex room
Interpretation
The scent associated previously with sexual activity became a conditioned (learned) response

33. Learned Sexual Stimuli
Money & Ehrhardt (1972)
Humans have sexual signaling system; visual at a distance, touch close-up

34. Female Attractiveness
Symons (1979)
Two major attributes: health and age (evolutionary perspective again)
Third characteristic: novelty
“Coolidge effect”
No one particular physical characteristic that is consistently reported

35. male Attractiveness Berscheid & Walster (1974)
Height is the only male physical trait that was consistently considered sexually attractive to women
Other studies say skills and abilities are what attract women to men; also status ranks high (evolutionary perspective yet again)

36. Incentive Motivation & Physical Addictions
Incentive motivations appear to play some role in physical addictions
Results from hedonic value of the incentive object
Probably some type of interaction with biological factors
Classical and operant conditioning seem to be involved
Certainly, the role of external factors is not as clear as the role of biological factors; genetic influences, etc.
More research needed in this area

37. Behavioral Addictions
Clear evidence that goal objects in the environment have motivational effects on our behavior
Reasonable to assume that incentive motivation processes are involved in behavioral addictions as well
Some examples: gambling, sex, compulsive eating, compulsive shopping, running, Internet
Cues associated with these behaviors become incentive motivators by inducing a craving for those behaviors
More research needed here as well

38. Credits Some slides prepared with the help of the following websites: