1. Hole’s Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology David Shier Jackie Butler Ricki Lewis Power Points prepared by Melanie Waite-Altringer Biology Faculty Member of Anoka-Ramsey Community College Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. APR Enhanced Lecture Outlines

2. 2 Chapter 20 Pregnancy, Growth, Development, and Genetics

3. 3 Introduction A.Development, which includes an increase in size (growth), is the continuous process by which an individual changes from one life phase to another. B.The life phases are the prenatal period, which begins at fertilization and ends at birth, and the postnatal period, which begins at birth and ends at death. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

4. 4 Pregnancy A.Pregnancy is the presence of developing offspring in the uterus, an event resulting from fertilization. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

5. 5 B.Transport of Sex Cells 1.Sperm cells must reach the upper one- third of the uterine tubes for fertilization to occur. 2.Under the influence of estrogen during the first half of the menstrual cycle, uterine secretions are thin, allowing sperm cells to swim easily toward their destination. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

6. 6 C.Fertilization 1.With the aid of the acrosomal enzyme, the sperms cells erode away the corona radiata and zona pellucida surrounding the secondary oocyte, and one sperm cell penetrates the egg cell membrane. 2.When penetration occurs, changes in the egg cell membrane and zona pellucida prevent the entry of additional sperm cells. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

7. 7 3.Fusion of egg and sperm nuclei completes fertilization. 4.Fertilization results in a diploid zygote. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

8. Fig20.02 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. First polar body Corona radiata Zona pellucida 1 3 2 4 5 Cytoplasm of secondary oocyte Second meiotic spindle Cell membrane of secondary oocyte Acrosome containing enzymes Nucleus containing chromosomes

9. 9 Prenatal Period A.Early Embryonic Development 1.Cells undergo a period of mitosis called cleavage, when cells become smaller and smaller. 2.The dividing mass of cells (morula) moves down the uterine tube to the uterus, where a stage called the blastocyst implants in the lining of the uterus. (This marks the beginning of the Embryonic Stage) Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

10. 10 3.The offspring is called an embryo during the first eight weeks of development, and a fetus after that time. 4.Some of the cells of the blastocyst become the placenta which also secretes hormones. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

11. 11 Fig20.03 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Zona pellucida Zygote First cleavage division Cleavages (first cleavage completed about 30 hours after fertilization) Stem cells Ovulation Uterus Endometrium Stem cells Sperm nucleus Egg nucleus Polar bodies Day 0 Pronucleus formation begins Day 1 2-cell stage Day 2 4-cell stage Day 3 Early morula Day 4 Late morula Day 6-7 Blastocyst implantation Fertilization occurs about 12-24 hours after ovulation

12. 12 B.Hormonal Changes during Pregnancy 1.The outer layer of cells (trophoblast) of the blastocyst stage secrete the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which maintains the corpus luteum and thus also maintains the uterine lining and the pregnancy. 2.Levels of hCG remain high until the placenta can produce enough hormones on its own to maintain the pregnancy. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

13. 13 Fig20.05 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Trophoblast Blastocyst Inner cell mass Uterine wall Invading trophoblast (a)

14. 14 3.The placenta also secretes placental lactogen for breast development and estrogens. 4.Other hormonal changes during pregnancy include increased secretions of aldosterone (promotes fluid retention) and parathyroid hormone (to maintain a high calcium level in the blood). Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

15. 15 C.Embryonic Stage 1.The embryonic stage lasts from the second to the eighth week of development, during which time the placenta develops, and all the main internal organs and major external features appear. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

16. 16 2.During the second week, the embryo is now called a gastrula and its inner cell mass transforms into the embryonic disc, and layers form within it. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

17. 17 3.These layers become the three primary germ layers and give rise to all organ systems. a.Ectoderm gives rise to the nervous system, portions of special sensory organs, the epidermis and epidermal derivatives, and the linings of the mouth and anal canal. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

18. 18 b.Mesodermal cells form all types of muscle tissue, bone tissue, bone marrow, blood, blood and lymphatic vessels, internal reproductive organs, kidneys, and epithelial linings of the body cavities. c.Endodermal cells produce the epithelial linings of the digestive tract, respiratory tract, urinary bladder, and urethra. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

19. 19 Fig20.07 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Chorion Endometrium Amnion Amniotic cavity Connecting stalk Chorionic villi Extraembryonic cavity Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm Lumen of uterus Yolk sac of embryo Primary germ layers of embryonic disc

20. 20 4.As the embryo implants, the trophoblast sends out extensions that develop into chorionic villi. 5.By the fourth week, the heart is beating, the head and jaws appear, and limb buds form. 6.As the chorionic villi develops (irregular spaces called lacunae form around and between the villi), exchanges of gases and nutrients occur through the placental membrane. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

21. 21 7.By the eighth week, the trophoblast is now the chorion, a portion of which develops into the placenta. 8.During this time, another membrane, the amnion, is developing around the embryo and will hold cushioning amniotic fluid. 9.An umbilical cord containing two umbilical arteries and one vein forms. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

22. 22 Fig20.08 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 4 weeks 6 weeks 7 weeks 5 weeks Actual length Actual length Actual length Actual length

23. 23 10.Two other membranes form in association with the embryo. a.The yolk sac, formed during the second week, is the first site of blood cell formation and also gives rise to the stem cells of the immune system. b.The allantois forms during the third week and joins the connecting stalk of the embryo; it forms blood cells and gives rise to the umbilical arteries and vein. c.Factors that cause congenital malformations affecting the embryo are called teratogens. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

24. 24 Fig20.12 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Chorion Endometrium Amniotic cavity Amnion Allantois Umbilical cord Extraembryonic cavity Yolk sac Developing placenta Maternal blood vessels

25. 11.By the beginning of the eighth week, the embryo is 30 millimeters in length and all essential body systems have formed. 25 Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

26. 26 D.Fetal Stage 1.The fetal stage begins at the end of the eighth week of development and lasts until birth. 2.During this period, growth is rapid and body proportions change considerably. 3.Existing structures grow and mature and only a few new parts appear. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

27. 27 4.The body enlarges, the limbs grow to the relative size they will maintain throughout development, and the bones ossify. 5.During the fifth month, the mother may feel the fetus move, fine hair appears, and dead epithelial cells and sebum cover the skin. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

28. 28 6.In the final trimester, brain cells form rapidly and organs grow and mature as the fetus greatly increases in size. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

29. Fig20.14 Amniotic fluid Umbilical cord Placenta Uterine wall Cervix Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

30. 30 E.Fetal Blood and Circulation 1.Substances diffuse through the placental membrane and umbilical vessels carry them to and from the fetus; fetal blood has a greater oxygen-carrying capacity than maternal blood. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

31. 31 2.The umbilical vein, transporting blood rich in oxygen and nutrients, enters the body and travels to the liver where half of the blood is carried into the liver and half bypasses the liver through the ductus venosus on its way to the inferior vena cava. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

32. 32 3.A foramen ovale conveys a large portion of the blood entering the right atrium from the inferior vena cava, through the atrial septum, and into the left atrium, thus bypassing the lungs. 4.A second lung bypass is the ductus arteriosus, which conducts some blood from the pulmonary trunk directly to the aorta. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

33. 33 5.Umbilical arteries carry blood from the internal iliac arteries to the placenta, where it can exchange wastes and again pick up nutrients and oxygen. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

34. 34 Fig20.15 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Aortic arch Superior vena cava Foramen ovale (becomes fossa ovalis) Inferior vena cava Ductus venosus (becomes ligamentum venosum) Hepatic portal vein Umbilical vein (becomes ligamentum teres) Placenta Umbilical arteries Umbilical vein Internal iliac artery Umbilical arteries (become medial umbilical ligaments) Common iliac artery Left renal artery Abdominal aorta Left ventricle Left atrium Pulmonary trunk Pulmonary artery Ductus arteriosus (becomes ligamentum arteriosum) Pulmonary veins Decreasing blood oxygen level

35. 35 F.Birth Process 1.Pregnancy continues for thirty eight weeks and terminates in the birth process. 2.As the placenta ages, less progesterone is produced, which normally inhibits uterine contractions. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

36. 36 3.A decreasing progesterone concentration may stimulate the synthesis of prostaglandins, which may initiate labor. 4.Stretching uterine tissues stimulates the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary, which stimulates uterine contractions. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

37. 37 5.As the fetal head stretches the cervix, a positive feedback mechanism results in stronger and stronger uterine contractions and a greater release of oxytocin. 6.Positive feedback causes abdominal muscles to contract with greater force and the fetus is forced through the birth canal to the outside. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

38. 38 7.Following birth, the placenta is expelled by the continued uterine contractions (afterbirth). Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

39. Fig20.16 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Placenta Urethra Vagina Cervix Rectum Amniotic sac (b)(a) (c)(d) Placenta Uterus Pubic symphysis Urinary bladder Ruptured amniotic sac Umbilical cord

40. 40 Postnatal Period A.Following birth, mother and newborn experience physiological and structural changes. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

41. 41 B.Milk Production and Secretion 1.Following childbirth, the action of prolactin is no longer inhibited and the mammary glands are stimulated to produce large quantities of milk. 2.First milk, or colostrum, is a watery fluid rich in proteins and antibodies. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

42. 42 3.Milk does not readily flow into the ductile system, but must be triggered to do so by a reflex involving the infant suckling at the breast, which triggers release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary. 4.Human milk is the best possible food for human babies. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

43. 43 C.Neonatal Period 1.The neonatal period begins abruptly at birth and lasts for four weeks. 2.The first breath must be forceful to inflate the lungs for the first time. a.Surfactant in a full-term newborn reduces surface tension. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

44. 44 3.At birth, the newborn must live off its fat stores for two to three days until the mother’s milk comes in. 4.The newborn is susceptible to dehydration since the homeostatic mechanisms involving water conservation in the kidneys are not yet fully functioning. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

45. 45 5.A number of changes occur in the newborn’s circulation: umbilical vessels constrict, the ductus venosus constricts, the foramen ovale closes, and the ductus arteriosis constricts. a.Most of these circulatory changes are gradual and occur during the first fifteen minutes after birth, although it may take up to a year for the foramen ovale to close. Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

46. 46 Fig20.18 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Aorta Liver Inferior vena cava Foramen ovale closes and becomes fossa ovalis Ductus venosus constricts and becomes solid ligamentum venosum Ductus arteriosus constricts and becomes solid ligamentum arteriosum Umbilical vein becomes solid ligamentum teres Distal portions of umbilical arteries constrict and become medial umbilical ligaments Proximal portions of umbilical arteries persist as superior vesical arteries Deoxygenated blood Oxygenated blood

47. 47 Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Aging A. Passive Aging 1.Passive aging is the breakdown of structures and slowing of function. 2.Faulty genetic instructions due to biochemical abnormalities during cell division and the breakdown of lipids are present. 3.Highly reactive free radicals will kill cells by destabilizing adjacent molecules.

48. B.Active Aging 1. Begins prior to birth as certain cells die as a part of development. This process of programmed cell death is called apoptosis. 2.Cells continue to die throughout our lives so new, healthy cells may replace them. 48

49. 49 Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Genetics A. Inherited traits are determined by DNA sequences that comprise genes. The field of genetics investigates how genes confer specific characteristics that affect health or contribute to our natural variation, and how genes are passed from generation to generation. B. Mutations occur when the gene’s DNA sequence changes.

50. 50 C. Chromosomes and Genes Come in Pairs 1.Charts called karyotypes display the 23 chromosome pairs of a human somatic cell. 2.Autosomes are pairs 1 through 22, and do not carry the genes that determine sex. 3. The other two chromosomes, the X and the Y, determine sex and are called sex chromosomes.

51. 4.Alleles are copies of genes identical or slightly different. 5.Identical alleles are homozygous. Two different alleles are heterozygous. 6. A combination of alleles is one’s genotype. 7.The characteristic associated with a particular genotype is its’ phenotype. 51

52. 52 Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. D. Modes of Inheritance 1.Patterns of inheritance through families are called modes of inheritance. 2. Dominant and recessive inheritance a. Three major modes of inheritance are autosomal recessive, autosomal dominant, and X-linked recessive. b.A Punnett Square symbolizes the logic used to determine probabilities of genotypes in offspring. c.A pedigree shows family members how they are related.

53. E. Multifactorial Traits 1.Most traits are influenced to some extent by environmental factors, such as nutrition, physical activity, and exposure to toxins. 53