1. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy1 Optical Fibre Communication Systems Professor Z Ghassemlooy Lecture 3: Light Sources Northumbria Communications Laboratory Faculty of Engineering and Environment The University of Northumbria U.K. http://soe.unn.ac.uk/ocr

2. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy2 Contents  Properties  Types of Light Source  LED  Laser  Types of Laser Diode  Comparison  Modulation  Modulation Bandwidth

3. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy3 Light Sources - Properties In order for the light sources to function properly and find practical use, the following requirements must be satisfied: Output wavelength: must coincide with the loss minima of the fibre Output power: must be high, using lowest possible current and less heat High output directionality: narrow spectral width Wide bandwidth Low distortion

4. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy4 Light Sources - Types Every day light sources such as tungsten filament and arc lamps are suitable, but there exists two types of devices, which are widely used in optical fibre communication systems:  Light Emitting Diode (LED)  Semiconductor Laser Diode (SLD or LD). In both types of device the light emitting region consists of a pn junction constructed of a direct band gap III-V semiconductor, which when forward biased, experiences injected minority carrier recombination, resulting in the generation of photons.

5. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy5 LED - Structure pn-junction in forward bias, Injection of minority carriers across the junction gives rise to efficient radiative recombination (electroluminescence) of electrons (in CB) with holes (in VB) Electron Hole pn Homojunction LED --- Fermi levels

6. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy6 LED - Structure Spontaneous emission Optical power produced by the Junction: Where  int = Internal quantum efficiency q = Electron charge 1.602 x 10 -19 C Electron (-)Hole (+) Narrowed Depletion region + - p-type n-type PtPt Fibre I P0P0 Photons P 0

7. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy LED – Current-Voltage Characteristics 7 Turning on voltage is 2-3V depending on devices

8. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy8 LED - External quantum efficiency  ext Loss mechanisms that affect the external quantum efficiency: (1) Absorption within LED (2) Fresnel losses: part of the light gets reflected back, reflection coefficient: R={(n 2 -n 1 )/(n 2 +n 1 )} (3) Critical angle loss: all light gets reflected back if the incident angle is greater than the critical angle. It considers the number of photons actually leaving the LED structure Where F = Transmission factor of the device-external interface n = Light coupling medium refractive index n x = Device material refractive index

9. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy9 LED - Power Efficiency Or the power coupled to the fibre: The coupling efficiency MMSF: GMMF: The optical coupling loss relative to P e is : External power efficiency Emitted optical power

10. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy10 LED- Surface Emitting LED (SLED) G Keiser 2000 Data rates less than 20 Mbps Short optical links with large NA fibres (poor coupling) Coupling lens used to increase efficiency

11. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy11 LED- Edge Emitting LED (ELED) Higher data rate > 100 Mbps Multimode and single mode fibres G Keiser 2000

12. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy12 LED - Spectral Profile Intensity 0 800-900 nm 1300-1550 nm 15 4565 15 4565 Wavelength (nm)

13. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy13 LED - Power Vs. Current Characteristics Since P  I, then LED can be intensity modulated by modulating the I Since P  I, then LED can be intensity modulated by modulating the I Current I (mA) Power P 0 (mW) 1 2 3 4 5 Linear region SELED ELED 50 Temperature

14. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy14 LED - Characteristics Wavelength 800-850 nm 1300 nm Spectral width (nm) 30-60 50-150 Output power (mW) 0.4-5 0.4-1.0 Coupled power (mW) - 100 um core 0.1-2 ELED 0.3-0.4 SLED 0.04-0.08 - 50 um core 0.01-0.05 SLED 0.05-0.15 0.03-0.07 - Single mode 0.003-0.04 Drive current (mA) 50-150 100-150 Modulation bandwidth 80-150 100-300 (MHz)

15. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy15 Laser - Characteristics The term Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Could be mono-chromatic (one colour). It is coherent in nature. (I.e. all the wavelengths contained within the Laser light have the same phase). One the main advantage of Laser over other light sources A pumping source providing power It had well defined threshold current beyond which lasing occurs At low operating current it behaves like LED Most operate in the near-infrared region

16. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy16 Laser - Basic Operation Three steps required to generate a laser beam are: Absorption Spontaneous Emission Stimulated Emission Similar to LED, but based on stimulated light emission. “LED” mirror 1 mirror 2 coherent light R = 0.99 R = 0.90 Mirrors used to “re-cycle” phonons” Current density: 10 4 A/cm2 down to 10 A/cm2

17. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy17 Absorption When a photon with certain energy is incident on an electron in a semiconductor at the ground state(lower energy level E 1 the electron absorbs the energy and shifts to the higher energy level E 2. The energy now acquired by the electron is E e = hf = E 2 - E 1. Plank's law E1E1 E2E2 E2E2 Initial state E1E1 Excited electron final state E1E1 E2E2 Electron Incoming photon E e = hf

18. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy18 Spontaneous Emission E 2 is unstable and the excited electron(s) will return back to the lower energy level E 1 As they fall, they give up the energy acquired during absorption in the form of radiation, which is known as the spontaneous emission process. E1E1 E2E2 E1E1 E2E2 Initial state Photon E e = hf

19. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy19 Stimulated Emission But before the occurrence of this spontaneous emission process, if external stimulation (photon) is used to strike the excited atom then, it will stimulate the electron to return to the lower state level. By doing so it releases its energy as a new photon. The generated photon(s) is in phase and have the same frequency as the incident photon. The result is generation of a coherent light composed of two or more photons. In quantum mechanic – Two process: Absorption and Stimulated emission E1E1 E2E2 E1E1 E2E2 Coherent light Requirement:  <0 Light amplification: I(x) = I 0 exp(-  x) E e = hf

20. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy20 So we have a large number of electron inside a cavity, therefore need to talk about statistics. Thus need to talk average rates of transition. I.e. what is the probability that a transition can take place between two levels per unit time. The rate of absorption process is: Transition probability from 1 to 2 [is a constant introduced by Einstein] Probability that Lower level is empty Occupation probability of level 1 N2N2 Laser - Basic Operation f 1 and f 2 are Fermi functions given as: F 1 and F 2 are quasi Fermi levels (i.e., number of electrons in the lower and upper levels, respectively Photon density In the cavity foe E 21

21. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy21 Transition probability from 2 to 1 Photon density In the cavity foe E 21 Transition probability from 2 to 1 [is a constant introduced by Einstein] Probability that Lower level is empty Occupation probability of level 2 The rate of stimulated emission process is: The rate of spontaneous emission process is: Laser - Basic Operation The rate of total emission process is (upper level is depopulated):

22. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy22 At dynamic equilibrium Absorption = emission Laser - Basic Operation One need to solve this to determine

23. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy23 The Rate Equations Rate of change of photon numbers = stimulated emission + spontaneous emission + loss Rate of change of electron numbers = Injection + spontaneous emission + stimulated spontaneous J is thecurrent density, R sp is the rate of spontaneous emission,  ph is the photon rate,  s spontaneous recombination rate, C is the constant

24. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy24 Laser Diodes (LD) Standing wave (modes) exists at frequencies for which i = 1, 2,.. Modes are separated by In terms of wavelength separation L I Optical confinement layers

25. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy25 LD - Spectral Profile Intensity 0 1 35 1 35 Wavelength (nm)  Modes Multi-mode Gaussian output profile

26. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy26 LD - Efficiencies Internal quantum efficiency External quantum efficiency External power efficiency Where P = IV

27. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy27 Power Vs. Current Characteristics Current I (mA) Power P 0 (mW) 1 2 3 4 5 50 Temp. LED Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission (lasing) Threshold current I th

28. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy28 LED & LD - Frequency Response 110100100010,000 Frequency (MHz) 0 -3 Magnitude (dB) 800 nm LED 1300-1550 nm Multimode Single mode LD

29. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy29 LD - Single Mode Achieved by reducing the cavity length L from 250  m to 25  m But difficult to fabricate Low power Long distance applications Types: Fabry-Perot (FP) Distributed Feedback (DFB) Distributed Bragg Reflector (DBR) Distributed Reflector (DR)

30. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy30 Laser - Fabry-Perot  Strong optical feedback in the longitudinal direction  Multiple longitudinal mode spectrum  “Classic” semiconductor laser –1st fibre optic links (850 nm or 1300 nm) –Short & medium range links  Key characteristics –Wavelength: 850 or 1310 nm –Total output power: a few mw –Spectral width: 3 to 20 nm –Mode spacing: 0.7 to 2 nm –Highly polarized –Coherence length: 1 to 100 mm –Small NA (  good coupling into fiber) P peak I P Threshold Agilent Technology 250-500 um 5-15 um Cleaved faces

31. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy31 Laser - Distributed Feedback (DFB)  No cleaved faces, uses Bragg Reflectors for lasing  Single longitudinal mode spectrum  High performance –Costly –Long-haul links & DWDM systems  Key characteristics –Wavelength: around 1550 nm –Total power output: 3 to 50 mw –Spectral width: 10 to 100 MHz (0.08 to 0.8 pm) –Sidemode suppression ratio (SMSR): > 50 dB –Coherence length: 1 to 100 m –Small NA (  good coupling into fiber) P peak SMSR Corrugated feedback Bragg Agilent Technology

32. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy32 Laser - Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSEL)  Distributed Bragg reflector mirrors –Alternating layers of semiconductor material –40 to 60 layers, each / 4 thick –Beam matches optical acceptance needs of fibers more closely  Key properties –Wavelength range: 780 to 980 nm (gigabit ethernet) –Spectral width: <1nm –Total output power: >-10 dBm –Coherence length:10 cm to10 m –Numerical aperture: 0.2 to 0.3 Agilent Technology active n-DBR p-DBR Laser output

33. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy33 Laser diode - Properties Property Multimode Single Mode Spectral width (nm) 1-5 < 0.2 Output power (mW) 1-10 10-100 Coupled power (  W) - Single mode 0.1-5 1-40 External quantum efficiency 1-40 25-60 Drive current (mA) 50-150 100-250 Modulation bandwidth 2000 6000-40,000 (MHz)

34. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy34 Comparison LED  Low efficiency  Slow response time  Lower data transmission rate  Broad output spectrum  In-coherent beam  Low launch power  Higher distortion level at the output  Suitable for shorter transmission distances.  Higher dispersion  Less temperature dependent  Simple construction  Life time 10 7 hours Laser Diode  High efficiency  Fast response time  Higher data transmission rate  Narrow output spectrum  Coherent output beam  Higher bit rate  High launch power  Less distortion  Suitable for longer transmission distances  Lower dispersion  More temperature dependent  Construction is complicated  Life time 10 7 hours

35. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy Type of Data Communications 35  Broadcasting communications –Visible light communications –Infrared communications  Duplex communications (bidirectional) –Infrared, high speed –Cellular structure –Narrow FOV

36. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy Transmitter Design 36  Electrical driver –DC driver VLC: sufficient light for illumination Laser: lasing level Ensuring linear modulation –AC driver (modulator) –Modulation depth  Transmitter Field-of-View (FOV) –Link range –Coverage  Modulation schemes

37. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy37 Modulation Direct Intensity (current) Inexpensive (LED) In LD it suffers from chirp up to 1 nm (wavelength variation due to variation in electron densities in the lasing area) External Modulation The process transmitting information via light carrier (or any carrier signal) is called modulation. DC RF modulating signal R I Intensity Modulated optical carrier signal

38. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy38 Direct Intensity Modulation- Analogue LEDLD Input signal G Keiser 2000

39. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy39 Direct Intensity Modulation- Digital Time Optical power i t Time Optical power i t LEDLD

40. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy Driver Circuit 40  Type –Analogue (Transistors) –Digital (Logic gate, opamp)  Circuit –Discrete (transistor, R, L, C) Flexible to build and test but bulky Low speed, problem with parasitic, matching –Integrated circuit (IC) Compact, cheap Well calibrated and tested High speed and good coupling

41. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy Bias Tee 41 Some issues need to know - Leaked ratio - Impedance matching - Operational bandwidth To couple to DC and AC signals to drive LED/LD To separate the DC and AC sources

42. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy LED Driver - VLC 42

43. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy Laser Driver 43  Let’s examine the high speed driver circuit - Impedance matching - Proper biasing - Lasing point - Modulation depth - Bias Tee - Feedback - Amplification gain control - Power monitoring http:// datasheets.maxim-ic.com/en/ds/MAX3869.pdf

44. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy44 External Modulation DC MOD RF (modulating signal) R I Modulated optical carrier signal For high frequencies 2.5 Gbps - 40 Gbps AM sidebands (caused by modulation spectrum) dominate linewidth of optical signal

45. Prof. Z Ghassemlooy45 Modulation Bandwidth In optical fibre communication the modulation bandwidth may be defined in terms of: Eelectrical Bandwidth B ele - (most widely used) Optical Bandwidth B opt - Larger than B ele G Keiser 2000 Optical 3 dB point