1. MGT-491 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS AND RESEARCH FOR MANAGEMENT OSMAN BIN SAIF Session 8

2. Brief Course Contents (Contd.) 2.Section 2; Measurement and Scaling, data Source and Data Collection 1.Primary Data Collection from observations 2.Surveys and Experimentation 3.Commonly used scales in business research 4.Checking reliability and validity of scales 2

3. Brief Course Contents (Contd.) 2.Section 2; Measurement and Scaling, data Source and Data Collection 5.Designing instrument for data collection 6.Testing the instrument 7.Data collection process 8.Sampling methods and procedures 9.Sample size decisions 10.Case review and analysis 3

4. Field Research/ Primary data collection methods Many methods and procedures have been developed to help in acquiring data. They make use of different means of describing and quantifying data. Each one of these is suitable in specific situations of source and type of data. 4

5. Field Research/ Primary data collection methods (Contd.) Too much dependence on one method is not desirable. The recent trend in social science and management research is to use multiple methods. 5

6. Field Research/ Primary data collection methods (Contd.) Multiple method serve two purposes; – One of eliminating or minimizing bias. – The other of corroborating And hence greater reliability of data. 6

7. Field Research/ Primary data collection methods (Contd.) The primary data relevant to a problem is collected by one of the standard methods of research; – Experiments – Surveys – Field studies – Case studies – System studies – Etc. 7

8. Field Research/ Primary data collection methods (Contd.) The basic methods and tools for data collection for research include; – Observation – Questionnaire – Interview – Projective technique 8

9. Field Research/ Primary data collection methods (Contd.) Tools for data collection Type of Research ObservationQuestionnaireInterviewProjective Technique Records ExperimentalXXXX- ExploratoryXXX-X DescriptiveXXX-X Causal-XX-- Case studyXXX-X Model Building x-X-X Tools for data collection versus types of research 9

10. Field Research/ Primary data collection methods (Contd.) The employment of any of these tools of data collection depends on the type of research that is being undertaken and the time and resource available to the researcher. 10

11. Primary data collection from observations Observation is the most direct form of data collection. Usually data is gathered by observation when it can be gathered accurately only by this method. Example; – Behavior of children who cannot talk. 11

12. Primary data collection from observations (Contd.) There is a considerable difference between causal observation and scientific observation. Scientific observation is well planned, recorded and checked for validity and reliability. It has a research purpose and therefore has focus during its process 12

13. Primary data collection from observations (Contd.) Conditions under which data can be effectively collected are ; – Data must be accessible to the observer. Some behaviors are communicated through facial expression and body language. These are observable when the activity is repetitive, frequent and predictable. 13

14. Primary data collection from observations (Contd.) Conditions under which data can be effectively collected are ; (Contd.) – They must be of short interval to reduce distortion due to recall – It is desirable that the observational data is used to supplement the other methods of data collection. 14

15. Observational Approaches Basically there are two type of approaches; 1.Systematic Observation Schedules are used in direct or indirect observation and non behavioral and behavioral observations. 2.Participant observation View point is obtained by the observer being embedded in the system, using analysis and collecting of data parallel-ly. 15

16. Classification of Observational Approaches Observational approaches can be classified as follows; – Natural versus Contrived; Observing how many cars pass a circle every hour is a natural observation, which is useful when phenomena occur frequently. A store worker checked by an observer disguised as a customer is a contrived observation. 16

17. Classification of Observational Approaches (Contd.) Open versus Disguised; – An observation made on television or meeting certain occurrences are examples of open observations. – Observation in lab experiments are often disguised, that is, the participants are unaware of certain kinds of observations made by the experimenter. 17

18. Classification of Observational Approaches (Contd.) Structured versus unstructured; – In structured what aspects are to be observed and recorded are exactly known. – The others are ignored; An observation checklist is usually used. – When any aspect of a phenomenon, as in exploratory situations is considered useful, the observation becomes unstructured. 18

19. Classification of Observational Approaches (Contd.) Direct versus Indirect; – When current behavior or occurrence is observed, the observation is direct. – When past behavior is to be observed, it can only be done through effects (physical traces). 19

20. Classification of Observational Approaches (Contd.) Mechanical versus Human; – When devises like television, meters, video cameras and photographic analysis are used for observation, it becomes mechanical. – All other observations are human. 20

21. Classification of Observational Approaches (Contd.) Non-Behavioral versus behavioral; – Non-behavioral are analysis of records (historical or current) written, sound recorded or video taped, photographs or computer records. – Content analysis may be used in this context; Physical condition analysis Process and activity analysis Work Study Manufacturing system analysis. 21

22. Classification of Observational Approaches (Contd.) Non-Behavioral versus behavioral; – Behavior observation includes observations of; Non-verbal behavior, body movements, gestures, facial expressions. Linguistic behavior which includes vocal sounds made during interactions Extra linguistic behavior like pitch of talking or manner of talking. Spatial behavior in which how an individual behaves in close physical proximity to others is studied. 22

23. Evaluation of observations as data collection procedures Structuring observation reduces (potential) bias of observation and increases reliability but reduced search in structured observation reduces validity. The observer must assimilate the information obtained in the observation and make inferences from them. It is at once a strength and weakness of behavior observation. 23

24. Survey Questionnaires are preferred in most surveys because they are less expensive. Skills required to administer them are also less than what is required for interviewing. Large sample can be dealt with simultaneously as mailing is possible. One great disadvantage is low response. 24

25. Designing instrument for data collection process and testing the instrument A questionnaire is a formalized set of questions aimed at eliciting information regarding facts, level of knowledge, attitudes, needs and motivation. At the current level of standardization of the design of questionnaires, it can be treated more as an art than a science. 25

26. Steps in designing a Questionnaire Step 1: Information Sought; – First step in any questionnaire design is the specification of the information sought. – The exact information required has to be stated. – Target population has to be specified. – The objectives of the questionnaire have to be spell out and the respondents should be chosen as make them less diversified. 26

27. Steps in designing a Questionnaire (Contd.) Step 2 Type of Questionnaire; – Type of questions to be included has to be decided. – The major decisions are whether one or more questions need to be designed for each item of information. 27

28. Steps in designing a Questionnaire (Contd.) Step 3 Method of Administration; – When the questionnaire elicits information regarding behavior—past and present—and intended attitudes and opinions, it is desirable to use interview along with a questionnaire. – Mail survey or telephone survey may be used, particularly for demographic properties. 28

29. Steps in designing a Questionnaire (Contd.) Step 4 Form of Response; – The response format deals particularly with the freedom of the researcher and that of the respondent. – The format usually are open ended and multiple- choice questions. 29

30. Steps in designing a Questionnaire (Contd.) Step 5 Wording and phrasing of questions; – The basic principle is to make the questions simple and straightforward. 30

31. Steps in designing a Questionnaire (Contd.) Step 6 Sequence of questions; – Simple questions in the beginning and complex questions at the end – Neutral questions in the beginning, sensitive questions in the middle and controversial questions at the end. 31

32. Steps in designing a Questionnaire (Contd.) Step 7 Layout of the Questions: – The format and layout of the questionnaires should be physically designed so as to eliminate recording errors. 32

33. Steps in designing a Questionnaire (Contd.) Step 8 Iteration; – Like in any design function, it may be necessary to go through steps one to seven in one or two iterations to eliminate undesirable features of the questions. 33

34. Steps in designing a Questionnaire (Contd.) Step 9 Pre-testing and revision of Questions; – The pre-test is generally done on a small sample of respondents who are similar to the respondents of the main study. 34

35. Interviews Interviews can be used in all segments of the population whereas questionnaires can be used only with educated segments, particularly where the questions tend to become complex. The sample for interviews tend to be more representative than in case of questionnaires as people are generally more inclined to talk than to write. 35

36. Interviews (Contd.) Interview are more flexible in the sense a little more customer oriented than standard. A skillful interviewer can overcome unwillingness on the part of the respondents to answer emotionally laden or complex questions. 36

37. Depth interview Interviews are most common methods of obtaining information on behavior, attitudes, needs and characteristics of people. One method of getting information is ask directly. But direct questions may fail to elicit proper answers because the subject is unwilling. 37

38. Depth interview (Contd.) Depth interview is a technique for interviews. There are two kinds of depth interviews – Individual depth interview – Focused group interview 38

39. Individual depth interview The interviewer asks no specific set of questions There is freedom for the interviewer to create questions as he goes along with the interview. On the other hand the respondent has the freedom of response, both with respect to; – Content – Manner 39

40. Individual depth interview (Contd.) They are used; – When detailed probing is necessary – When subject matter is confidential – When emotions or embarrassment may evoke – When information on complex behaviour patterns is desired – When it may be desirable to allow the respondent to sketch anecdotes or tell stories. 40

41. Focused group Interviews They are used to reflect a particular behavior or characteristics and is led by a moderator. Focuses on a given experience and its effects. Group is informed about the topic in advance. Respondents are free to express their own lines of thought but are controlled only to the general discussion of the responses to the subject under focus. 41

42. Focused group Interviews (Contd.) More accurate information can be obtained by the focus group interview then by interviewing a single individual. Security in belonging to a crowd urges some inarticulate respondents to speak out. Volume of ideas per individual may be smaller and cost of interviewing is lower. 42

43. Summary of This Session 1.Primary Data Collection from observations 1.Field research 2.Observational Approaches and their classifications 3.Evaluation of Observations 2.Surveys and Experimentation 1.Surveys 2.Steps in designing a questionnaire 3.Interviews and their types 43

44. Thanks 44