1. OBSERVATION © LOUIS COHEN, LAWRENCE MANION & KEITH MORRISON

2. STRUCTURE OF THE CHAPTER Structured observation The need to practise structured observation Analyzing data from structured observations Critical incidents Naturalistic and participant observation Data analysis for less structured observations Natural and artificial settings for observation The use of technology in recording observations Timing and causality with observational data Ethical considerations Some cautionary comments

3. OBSERVATIONS ARE... Looking (often systematically) Noting systematically people, events, behaviours, settings, artifacts, routines etc. Concerned with live data and situations Selective and theory-driven (there are no neutral observations) On a continuum from highly structured to semi-structured to unstructured

4. ROLE OF OBSERVER Complete participant Participant as observer Observer as participant Complete observer Complete participation to complete detachment

5. CONTINUA OF OBSERVATION Prespecified/pre-ordinateResponsive QuantitativeQualitative Time boundOpen-ended Short-termLong-term Structured/systematicUnstructured/ad hoc Participant observationNon-participant observation Highly focused/early focusedUnfocused/late focused DescriptiveExplanatory OvertCovert Laboratory/contrived settingsNatural settings Direct observationIndirect observation Observing othersObserving self and others

6. OBSERVERS MUST CONSIDER... The focus of the observation(s) Why they are observing The research questions that the observational data will address What to include and exclude How to record the observations Where to observe What to observe Whom to observe How many people, events, settings to observe

7. OBSERVERS MUST CONSIDER... How systematic, structured, descriptive to be The ‘unit’ of observation (e.g. a teacher, a student; a pair, a small group, a class) What resources are necessary Problems that might be encountered Additional information that may be needed to complement the observational record The processing and analysis of data

8. OBSERVERS MUST CONSIDER... How the observation may be affected by the sex, sexuality, ethnicity, class, appearance, age, language, personality, temperament, attitude, interpersonal behaviour, familiarity with the situation, involvement and concern of the observer Whether the observer will stand or sit, or move around a setting Where to stand or sit

9. STRUCTURED OBSERVATION Systematic Enables the researcher to generate numerical data from the observations Non-participant observer Data entered onto a structured observation schedule

10. STRUCTURED OBSERVATION Observation categories are discrete: no overlap Timed The researcher will need to practise completing the schedule consistently and at speed The researcher will need to decide what entry/code/symbol is to be made in the appropriate category

11. Student to Student//// Student to Students // Student to Teacher /// Students to Teacher ///// Teacher to Student Teacher to Students Student to Self Task in hand Previous task Future task Non-task STRUCTURED OBSERVATION

12. EVENT SAMPLING (Each occurrence) Boss shouts at employee / / / / / Employee shouts at boss / / / Employee’s colleague shouts at boss / / Boss shouts at employee’s colleague / /

13. TWO DIFFERENT STORIES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Boss shouts at employee / / / / / Employee shouts at boss / / / Employee’s friend shouts at boss / / Boss shouts at employee’s friend / / 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Boss shouts at employee / / / / / Employee shouts at boss / / / Employee’s friend shouts at boss / / Boss shouts at employee’s friend / /

14. INSTANTANEOUS SAMPLING (On the instant of time) INTERVAL RECORDING (What has happened in the previous time period) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Boss smiles at employee / / / / Employee smiles at boss / / / / Boss smiles at employee’s friend / / / / Employee’s friend smiles at boss / / / /

15. 1 2 3 4 5 Warm_ _ _ _ _ Aloof Stimulating_ _ _ _ _ Dull Businesslike_ _ _ _ _ Slipshod RATING SCALES CRITICAL INCIDENTS

16. Entering data consistently and at speed Catching all the data Where to observe/stand/sit THE NEED TO PRACTISE STRUCTURED OBSERVATION

17. Frequencies Patterns Unusual data Frequently occurring Aggregated data Quantitized and qualitized ANALYZING DATA FROM STRUCTURED OBSERVATIONS

18. Naturalistic research often uses participant observation Observations are recorded in field notes and audio-visually NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

19. FIELD NOTES (1) Types: Jottings; transcriptions; reports; pen portraits;reconstructions of conversations; descriptions of physical settings; reports of events and behaviour; descriptions of researcher’s activities; ongoing notes; logs and diaries; notes on pre ‑ determined themes; chronologs; discussion data

20. FIELD NOTES (2) Timing and focus: Notes made in situ; Expanded notes that are made as soon as possible after the initial observations; Journal notes to record issues, ideas, difficulties etc. that arise during the fieldwork; A developing, tentative running record of ongoing analysis and interpretation.

21. FIELD NOTES (3) Description Space: the physical setting; Actors: the people in the situation; Activities: the sets of related acts that are taking place. Objects: the artifacts and physical things that are there; Acts: the specific actions that participants are doing; Events: the sets of activities that are taking place; Time: the sequence of acts, activities and events; Goals: what people are trying to achieve; Feelings: what people feel and how they express this.

22. FIELD NOTES (4) Reflection: Reflections on the descriptions and analyses that have been done; Reflections on the methods used in the observations and data collection and analysis; Ethical issues, tensions, problems and dilemmas; The reactions of the observer to what has been observed and recorded – attitude, emotion, analysis etc.; Points of clarification that have been and/or need to be made; Possible lines of further inquiry.

23. DATA ANALYSIS FROM FIELD NOTES Qualitative data analysis: Coding, classifying, categorizing Nodes and connection Summarizing Narrative accounts Constant comparison Grounded theory Theoretical saturation Thematic analysis Patterning Quantitizing (e.g. frequencies)

24. USING TECHNOLOGY IN RECORDING OBSERVATIONS Audio-visual recording Problems of reactivity Fixed or moving camera Operator present with camera/camera; no operator present How many cameras? Location of camera(s) Close focus or panorama?

25. TIMING AND CAUSALITY WITH OBSERVATIONAL DATA When to observe effects of an intervention? How many time points for observation? How frequent are the observations? The more accurately we wish to know the causal sequences, the more frequently and closer together must be the observational data collection points. The more complex is the phenomenon under investigation, the more time points for observational data collection may be necessary in order to understand the causation. Ethnography may be more useful than numerical studies in identifying causality.

26. ETHICS Informed consent Covert or overt Disturbing the natural setting Deception and pretence Impression management Confidentiality/anonymity/privacy/non- traceability Protection of individuals Loyalties (and to whom) Ignoring dubious acts (e.g. criminal acts)

27. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY Selective attention of the observer Reactivity Attention deficit of observer Validity of constructs Selective data entry Selective memory for write-ups of observations Interpersonal matters and counter-transference Expectancy effects Decisions on how to record Number of observers The problem of inference

28. PLANNING OBSERVATIONS When, where, how and what to observe How much structure is necessary in the observation (structured to unstructured) The duration of the observation period The timing of the observation period The context of the observation The opportunity to observe Merging subjective and objective observation The value of covert participant observation in order to reduce reactivity

29. PLANNING OBSERVATIONS Threats to reliability and validity Operationalizing the observation so that what counts as evidence is consistent, unambiguous and valid Appropriate kind of structured observation and recording Ethical issues Whether deception is justified Which role(s) to adopt on the continuum of complete participant to complete observer