1. STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES CHAPTER 5

2. The federal law states that a student has a learning disability if he or she (1) does not achieve at the proper age and ability levels in one or more of several specific areas when provided with appropriate learning experiences, and (2) has a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability in one or more of the following areas: (a) oral expression, (b) listening comprehension, (c) written expression, (d) basic reading skill, (e) reading comprehension, (f) mathematics calculation, and (g) mathematics reasoning.

5. LEARNING DISABILITIES AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE  Reading is the most difficult skill area for most students with learning disabilities.  Language arts, especially spelling, written language, and spoken language, are closely tied to reading and also very difficult for many students with learning disabilities.  Mathematics can also present problems in understanding size and spatial relationships, concepts of direction, place value, fractions, decimals, and time, and remembering math facts.

7. CHARACTERISTICS OF LD

8. ESSENTIAL DIMENSIONS OF A DEFINITION OF LEARNING DISABILITIES Heterogeneous group of disorders Have a neurological basis Characterized by unexpected achievement Not the result of other disorders or problems but may occur with other disabilities

9. Comprehensive assessment of LD. Children with LD show (1) an academic skill deficit, (2) underlying cognitive processing problems associated with that academic deficit, and (3) otherwise normal cognitive functioning (IQ). Based on Flanagan and colleagues (2010).

10. The Prevalence of LD Largest disability category (~2.6 million) Prevalence remains higher for boys than girls

11. PHYSIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF LD Chemical imbalance Brain injury Prenatal Perinatal Postnatal Heredity

14. CURRICULUM AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTRIBUTORS Poor nutrition Adverse emotional climate at home Toxins or severe allergies Poor teaching Lack of stimulation Poverty Poor instruction

16. COGNITIVE CHARACTERISTICS Average or above average intelligence Weaknesses in one or more areas:  Attention  Perception  Memory  Thinking/processing

17. THE NORMAL CURVE

18. DISABILITY IN READING  Word analysis skills  Phonological awareness difficulties, dyslexia  Word recognition errors  Omissions, insertions, substitutions, reversals  Oral reading  Insecurity, loses place

19. PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS Skill that include identifying and manipulating units of oral language – parts such as words, syllables, and onsets and rhymes. Children who have phonological awareness are able to identify and make oral rhymes, can clap out the number of syllables in a word, and can recognize words with the same initial sounds like 'money' and 'mother.‘ Students at risk for reading difficulty often have lower levels of phonological awareness and phonemic awareness than do their classmates.

21. WORD DECODING AND PHONICS Decoding is the ability to apply your knowledge of letter-sound relationships, including knowledge of letter patterns, to correctly pronounce written words. Understanding these relationships gives children the ability to recognize familiar words quickly and to figure out words they haven't seen before. Although children may sometimes figure out some of these relationships on their own, most children benefit from explicit instruction in this area.

22. COMPREHENSION The understanding and interpretation of what is read. To be able to accurately understand written material, children need to be able to (1) decode what they read; (2) make connections between what they read and what they already know; and (3) think deeply about what they have read. One big part of comprehension is having a sufficient vocabulary, or knowing the meanings of enough words. Readers who have strong comprehension are able to draw conclusions about what they read – what is important, what is a fact, what caused an event to happen, which characters are funny. Thus comprehension involves combining reading with thinking and reasoning.

23. ORAL LANGUAGE Phonology—use of the correct sounds Morphology– smallest units of the language Syntax– correct use of grammar Semantics– meaning of words Pragmatics– proper use of language

24. WRITTEN LANGUAGE Dysgraphia-- deficiency in the ability to write primarily in terms of handwriting, but also in terms of coherence  Spelling  Omission or substitution of letters  Auditory memory and discrimination difficulties  Handwriting  Absence of fine motor skills  Lack of understanding of spatial relationships  Composition  Sentence structure  Paragraph organization  Complexity of stories

25. DISABILITY IN MATHEMATICS— DYSCALCULIA Computation skills Word problems Spatial relationships Writing or copying shapes Telling time Understanding fractions/decimals Measuring

29. Effects of mathematics instruction. Youth who receive self- instruction show the greatest improvement in math skills. However, direct instruction was particularly effective in improving children’s computational skills. Based on Kroesbergen and van Luit (2003).

30. DISABILITY IN MEMORY Short-term memory  Recalling in correct order, of either orally or visually presented information shortly after hearing or seeing the items Working memory  Retaining information while simultaneously engaging in another cognitive activity  Success in reading and math depend on this ability  Crucial for word recognition and reading comprehension

31. DISABILITY IN METACOGNITION Lack of awareness of strategies and resources needed to perform effectively Inability to monitor, evaluate, and adjust performance to ensure successful task completion

32. DISABILITY IN ATTRIBUTIONS  Students may attribute success to situations beyond their control such as luck rather than to their own efforts  Chronic failure makes success seem unattainable  Learned helplessness  Passive learners  Deficits in strategic learning behaviors

33. SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS Problems with:  Social perception  Social competence  Nonverbal learning disabilities  Motivation

34. BEHAVIOR CHARACTERISTICS  Types of Behavior Problems  Out-of-seat behavior  Speaking-out  Physical or verbal aggression  Problems may be caused by:  Communication difficulties  Frustration with academics  Attention difficulties or hyperactivity

35. A NEW APPROACH: RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION (RTI) Permitted, not required by IDEA 2004 Three-Tiered Model  All students participate in tier 1, and educators use proven instructional methods  Students who don’t succeed in tier 1 receive supplemental instruction  Students who don’t succeed in tier 2 receive more intensive interventions

36. TIERS OF SERVICES IN ACADEMIC RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION Source: RTI Action Network

37. Understanding RTI Rafe (top) responded to group- based reading intervention in Tier II of RTI. Treatment will be discontinued and he will receive regular reading instruction. Ricky (bottom) did not respond to Tier II intervention. He will receive individualized reading instruction in Tier III. Based on Reschly and Bergstrom (2009).

38. ELIGIBILITY UNDER RTI Is the student still exhibiting significant gaps in learning even though research-based, individually designed, systematically delivered, and increasingly intensive interventions have been provided? If the team decides that a student is nonresponsive to intervention, the team may decide the student has a learning disability.

39. RESEARCH ON INCLUSIVE PRACTICES Higher student self-confidence, higher expectations, improved academic progress Higher grades, comparable scores on achievement tests, better attendance Better social outcomes when students attend regular education classes part- time rather than full-time

40. COMMON OUTCOMES FOR STUDENTS WITH LD High dropout rate Less postsecondary education Part-time employment Lower occupational status Lower wages

41. MODEL TRANSITION PRACTICES  Include career awareness and exploration  Teach problem-solving, organization, self- advocacy, and communication skills  Work experiences are valuable  Linkages between students and community services  Teach students self-advocacy skills

42. Transition Success Skills for College (in priority order)  Understanding their disability  Understanding their strengths and limitations  Learning to succeed despite their disability and what accommodations facilitate learning  Setting goals and learning how to access resources  Problem-solving skills  Self-management skills  Forming relationships with university personnel, peers, and mentors PLANNING FOR OTHER EDUCATIONAL NEEDS

43. GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF DIRECT INSTRUCTION Well-organized, sequenced lessons Short review of previously learned skills Clear statement of lesson goals Presentation of new material in small steps Frequent opportunities for practice Questions to check for understanding