1. Non-clausal Reasoning Fahiem Bacchus, Christian Thiffault, Toronto Toby Walsh, UCC & Uppsala (soon UNSW, NICTA, Uppsala)

2. Every morning … I read the plaque on the wall of this house … Dedicated to the memory of George Boole … Professor of Mathematics at Queens College (now University College Cork)

3. George Boole (1815-1864) Boolean algebra The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, Cambridge, 1847 The Calculus of Logic, Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical journal, 1848 Reduce propositional logic to algebraic manipulations

4. George Boole (1815-1864) Boolean algebra The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, Cambridge, 1847 The Calculus of Logic, Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical journal, 1848 Reduce propositional logic to algebraic manipulations

5. How do we automate reasoning with propositional formulae?

6. Propositional SATisfiability Rapid progress being made 10 years ago, < 50 vars Today, > 1000 vars Algorithmic advances Learning Watched literals.. Heuristic advances VSIDS branching

7. Propositional SATisfiability Efficient implementations Chaff, Berkmin, Forklift, … SAT competition has new winner almost every year Practical applications Hardware verification Planning …

8. SAT folklore Need to solve in CNF Everything is a clause Efficient reasoning Optimize code with simple data structures … Effective reasoning Conversion into CNF does not hinder unit propagation

9. Overturning SAT folklore Deciding arbitrary Boolean formulae Without converting into CNF Efficient reasoning Raw speed as good as optimized CNF solvers Effective reasoning More inference than unit propagation Exploit structure More exotic gates, …

10. Davis Putnam procedure DPLL(S) if S empty then SAT if S contains {} then UNSAT if S contains unit, l then DPLL(S u {l}) else chose literal, l if DPLL(S u {l}) then SAT else DPLL(S u {-l})

11. Unit Propagation If the formula has a unit clause then the literal in that clause must be true Set the literal to true and reduce the formula. Unit propagation is the most commonly used type of constraint propagation One of the most important parts of current SAT solvers

12. Unit Propagation (a) (-a, b, c) (-b) (a, d, e) (-c, d, g)

13. Unit Propagation (a) (-a, b, c) (-b) (a, d, e) (-c, d, g) a=true

14. Unit Propagation (a) (-a, b, c) (-b) (a, d, e) (-c, d, g) a=true

15. Unit Propagation (a) (-a, b, c) (-b) (a, d, e) (-c, d, g) a=true

16. Unit Propagation (a) (-a, b, c) (-b) (a, d, e) (-c, d, g) a=true

17. Unit Propagation (a) (-a, b, c) (-b) (a, d, e) (-c, d, g) b=false

18. Unit Propagation (a) (-a, b, c) (-b) (a, d, e) (-c, d, g) b=false

19. Unit Propagation (a) (-a, b, c) (-b) (a, d, e) (-c, d, g) b=false

20. Unit Propagation (a) (-a, b, c) (-b) (a, d, e) (-c, d, g) c = true

21. Unit Propagation (a) (-a, b, c) (-b) (a, d, e) (-c, d, g) c = true

22. Unit Propagation (a) (-a, b, c) (-b) (a, d, e) (-c, d, g) c = true

23. Implementing Unit Propagation UP is main (often only) inference rule applied at each search node. Performing UP occupies most of the time in these solvers. More efficient implementations of UP has been one of the recent advances.

24. Implementing Unit Propagation Most DPLL solvers do not build an explicit representation of the reduced formula Too expensive in time and space to do this. Rather they keep original formula and mark the changes made All changes generated by UP undone when we backtrack.

25. Tableau [Crawford and Auton 95] We number the variables and clauses. Each variable has a field to store its current value, true, false or unvalued the list of clauses it appears positively in the list of clauses it appears negatively in Each clause has a list of its literals a flag to indicate whether or not it is satisfied the number of unvalued literals it contains

26. Tableau [Crawford and Auton 95] Unit propagated literal put on a stack pop the literal on top of the stack mark the variable with the appropriate value. mark each clause it appears positively in as satisfied. for each clause it appears negatively in if the clause is not already satisfied decrement the clause’s counter if the counter is equal to 1, the clause is unit find the single unvalued literal in the clause and add that literal to the UP stack. remember all changes so that they can be undone on backtrack.

27. Watch literals [SATO, Chaff] Tableau’s technique requires visiting each clause a variable appears in when we value a variable. When clause learning is employed, and 100,000’s of long new clauses are added to the original formula this becomes slow. The watch literal technique is more efficient.

28. Watch literals [SATO, Chaff] For each clause, pick two literals to watch. At least one of these literals must be false for the clause to be unit. For each variable instead of lists of all of the clauses it appears in positively and negatively, we only have lists of the clauses it is a watch for. reduces the total size of these lists from O(kn) to O(n)

29. Watch literals [SATO, Chaff] When we assign a value to a variable we Ignore the clauses it watches positively For each clause it watches negatively, we search the clause: if we find an unvalued literal or a true literal not equal to the other watch we replace this literal the watch otherwise the clause is unit and we UP the other watch literal if it is not already true. On backtrack we do nothing! The new watch literals retain the property that at least one of them must become false if the clause is to become unit.

30. Solving non-CNF formulae Convert into CNF Use efficient DPLL solver like Chaff Adapt DPLL solver to reason with non-CNF Exploit structure Permit complex gates (eg counting, XOR,..)

31. Encoding into CNF Most common (and relatively efficient?) is that of [Tseitin 1970]. Recusively converts a formula by adding a new variable for every subformula. Linear space

32. Tseitin Encoding A  (C & D)

33. 1.(~V 1, C) 2.(~V 1, D) 3.(~C,~D,V 1 ) Tseitin Encoding A  (C & D) V1  (C & D) (~V1, C), (~V1, D), (~C,~D,V1)

34. 1.(~V 1, C) 2.(~V 1, D) 3.(~C,~D,V 1 ) 4. (~V2, ~A, V1) 5.(A, V2) 6. (~V1, V2) Tseitin Encoding A  (C & D) V1  (C & D) (~V1, C), (~V1, D), (~C,~D,V1) V2  (A  V1) (~V2,~A,V1), (A, V2), (~V1, V2)

35. 1.(~V 1, C) 2.(~V 1, D) 3.(~C,~D,V 1 ) 4. (~V2, ~A, V1) 5.(A, V2) 6.(~V1, V2) 7. (V2) Tseitin Encoding A  (C & D) V1  (C & D) (~V1, C), (~V1, D), (~C,~D,V1) V2  (A  V1) (~V2,~A,V1), (A, V2), (~V1, V2)

36. Disadvantage of CNF Structural information is lost Flattens formulae into clauses. In a Boolean circuit Which variables are inputs? Which are internal wires? … Additional variables are added. Potentially increases the size of the DPLL search.

37. Structural Information Not all structural information can be recovered [Lang & Marquis, 1989]. Recovering structural information can improve performance [EqSatZ, LSAT]. Why lose this information in the first place? In addition, we can exploit more complex gates

38. Extra Variables Potentially “increase” search space Do not branch on any on the newly introduced “subformula” variables. Theoretically this can increase exponentially the size of smallest DPLL proof [Jarvisalo et al. 2004] Empirically solvers restricted in this way can perform poorly

39. Extra Variables The alternative is unrestricted branching. However, with unrestricted branching, a CNF solver can waste a lot of time branching on variables that have become “irrelevant”.

40. Irrelevant Variables A  (C & D) A=false formula satisfied

41. 1. (~V 1, C) 2. (~V 1, D) 3. (~C,~D,V 1 ) 4. (~V 2, ~A,V 1 ) 5. (A,V 2 ) 6. (~V 1,V 2 ) 7. (V 2 ) 8. (~A) Solver must still determine that the remaining clauses are SAT Irrelevant Variables A  (C & D) V1  (C & D) V2  (A  V1)

42. Converting to CNF is Unnecessary Search can be performed on the original formula. This has been noted in previous work on circuit based solvers, e.g. [Ganai et al. 2002] Reasoning with the original formula may permit other efficiencies E.g. exploiting structure, & complex gates

43. DPLL on formulae View formulae as DAGs Every node has a label (True/ False/ Unassigned) Branch on the truth value of any unassigned node Use Boolean logic to propagate truth values to neighbouring nodes Contradiction when node is labeled both True and False Find consistent labeling with truth values that assigns True to root (SAT) Or exhaust all possibilities (UNSAT)

44. \/  xor A B & CD True False \/ & CD 

45. Labeling  unit propagation Labeling a node  assigning a truth value to corresponding var in CNF encoding Propagating labels in the DAG  unit propagation in the CNF encoding

46. Learning Once a contradiction is detected a conflict clause can be learned set of impossible node assignments can use 1-UIP scheme (as in CNF solvers) Learned clauses stored and used to unit propagate node truth values

47. Complex gates Gates can have arbitrary degree n-ary AND, n-ary OR, … Gates can be complicated Boolean functions n-ary XOR (which requires exponential number of CNF clauses) cardinality gates (at least one, k out of n,..)

48. Label propagation Use lazy data structures as in CNF solvers For example. assign one child as a true watch for an AND gate Don’t check if AND gate can be labeled true until its true watch becomes true Some benchmarks have AND gates with thousands of children No intrinsic loss of efficiency in using the DAG over CNF.

49. Structure based optimizations We can also exploit the extra structural information the DAG provides Two such optimizations Don’t care propagation to deal with irrelevant subformulae Conflict clause reduction

50. Don’t Care labeling Add a third “truth” value to the DAG: “don’t care” A node C is don’t care wrt a particular parent P If its truth value can no longer affect the truth value of P nor any of its P siblings. Or P is don’t care. A node C is don’t care if it is don’t care wrt to all of its parents No need to branch on don’t cares!

51. Don’t Care labeling Assign a don’t care watch parent for each node. When P is labeled, C can becom don’t care wrt to its watch parent P If C becomes don’t care wrt to its don’t care watch we look for another watch. If we can’t find one we know, C has become don’t care

52. \/  xor B & CD True False \/ & CD  Don’t care AA xor B

53. Conflict Clause Reductions If one learns (L1,L2,...) and one has (~L1, L2) then we can reduce the conflict clause (~L1,L2) resolves with (L1,L2,...) to give (L2,...) Result subsumes the original conflict clause In CNF, we would have to search the clause database to detect this situation Probably not going to be effective

54. Conflict Clause Reductions Suppose P is an AND node, and C is a child Then ~C implies ~P If we have the conflict clause: (~P,~C,X,…) This reduces to (~P,X,…) Equivalent to a resolution step against (C,~P)

55. Conflict Clause Reductions When conflict clause generated Search neighbours in DAG for such reductions More useful on “shorter” clauses Experimentally found it only worth looking for such reductions on clauses of length 100 or less

56. Empirical Results. We compared with Zchaff Tried to isolate impact of CNF v non-CNF Made the two solvers as close as possible Same magic numbers (e.g., clause database cleanup criteria, restart intervals etc.) Same branching heuristics Expect similar improvements could be obtained with others CNF solvers

57. Empirical Results caveats Lack of non-clausal benchmarks Hope SAT-05 competition will include non- CNF Benchmarks we did obtain had already been transformed into simpler formulas No complex XOR or IFF gates

58. FVP-UNSAT-2.0 (Velev) Time

59. FVP-UNSAT-2.0 Decisions

60. FVP-UNSAT-2.0 Don’t Cares

61. FVP-UNSAT-2.0 Clause Reduction

62. Other Series

63. Conclusions No intrinsic reason to convert to CNF Many other structure based optimizations remain to be investigated Branching heuristics Non-clausal conflicts More complex gates …