1. Toward a Universal Inference Engine Henry Kautz University of Washington With Fahiem Bacchus, Paul Beame, Toni Pitassi, Ashish Sabharwal, & Tian Sang

2. Universal Inference Engine  Old dream of AI –  General Problem Solver – Newell & Simon  Logic + Inference – McCarthy & Hayes  Reality:  1962 – 50 variable toy SAT problems  1992 – 300 variable non-trivial problems  1996 – 1,000 variable difficult problems  2002 – 1,000,000 variable real-world problems

3. Pieces of the Puzzle  Good old Davis-Putnam-Logemann- Loveland  Clause learning (nogood-caching)  Randomized restarts  Component analysis  Formula caching  Learning domain-specific heuristics

4. Generality  SAT  #SAT  Bayesian Networks  Bounded-alternation Quantified Boolean formulas  Quantified Boolean formulas  Stochastic SAT #P complete NP complete PSPACE complete

5. 1. Clause Learning with Paul Beame & Ashish Sabharwal

6. DPLL( F ) // Perform unit propagation while exists unit clause (y)  F F  F | y if F is empty, report satisfiable and halt if F contains the empty clause  return else choose a literal x DPLL( F | x ) DPLL( F |  x ) DPLL Algorithm Remove all clauses containing y Shrink all clauses containing  y

7. Extending DPLL: Clause Learning Added conflict clauses  Capture reasons of conflicts  Obtained via unit propagations from known ones  Reduce future search by producing conflicts sooner When backtracking in DPLL, add new clauses corresponding to causes of failure of the search EBL [Stallman & Sussman 77, de Kleer & Williams 87] CSP [Dechter 90] CL [Bayardo-Schrag 97, MarquesSilva-Sakallah 96, Zhang 97, Moskewicz et al. 01, Zhang et al. 01]

8. Conflict Graphs FirstNewCut scheme (x 1  x 2  x 3 ) Decision scheme (p  q   b) 1-UIP scheme t pp qq b a x1x1 x2x2 x3x3 y yy false tt Known Clauses (p  q  a) (  a   b   t) (t   x 1 ) (t   x 2 ) (t   x 3 ) (x 1  x 2  x 3  y) (x 2   y) Current decisions p  false q  false b  true

9. CL Critical to Performance Best current SAT algorithms rely heavily on CL for good behavior on real world problems GRASP [MarquesSilva-Sakallah 96], SATO [H.Zhang 97] zChaff [Moskewicz et al. 01], Berkmin [Goldberg-Novikov 02] However,  No good understanding of strengths and weaknesses of CL  Not much insight on why it works well when it does

10. Harnessing the Power of Clause Learning (Beame, Kautz, & Sabharwal 2003)  Mathematical framework for analyzing clause learning for analyzing clause learning  Characterization of its power in relation to well-studied topics in in relation to well-studied topics in proof complexity theory proof complexity theory  Ways to improve solver performance based on formal analysis based on formal analysis

11. Proofs of Unsatisfiability When F is unsatisfiable,  Trace of DPLL on F is a proof of its unsatisfiability  Bound on shortest proof of F gives bound on best possible implementation  Upper bound – “There is a proof no larger than K”  Potential for finding proofs quickly  Best possible branching heuristic, backtracking, etc.  Lower bound – “Shortest proof is at least size K”  Inherent limitations of the algorithm or proof system

12. Proof System: Resolution F = ( a  b)  (  a  c)   a  (  b  c)  (a   c ) Unsatisfiable CNF formula c cc Proof size = 9 empty clause  (a  b)(  a  c)(  b  c)(a  c) aa (b  c)

13. Special Cases of Resolution Tree-like resolution  Graph of inferences forms a tree  DPLL Regular resolution  Variable can be resolved on only once on any path from input to empty clause  Directed acyclic graph analog of DPLL tree  Natural to not branch on a variable once it has been eliminated  Used in original DP [Davis-Putnam 60]

14. Proof System Hierarchy Tree-like RES Space of formulas with poly-size proofs Regular RES [Bonet et al. 00] General RES [Alekhnovich et al. 02] Frege systems … … Pigeonhole principle [Haken 85]

15. Thm1. CL can beat Regular RES Regular RES General RES Formula f Poly-size RES proof  Exp-size Regular proof Example formulas GT n Ordering principle Peb Pebbling formulas [Alekhnovich et al. 02] Formula PT(f,  ) Poly-size CL proof Exp-size Regular proof Regular RES CL DPLL

16. PT(f,  ) : Proof Trace Extension Start with  unsatisfiable formula f with poly-size RES proof  PT(f,  ) contains All clauses of f All clauses of f For each derived clause Q=(a  b  c) in , For each derived clause Q=(a  b  c) in , –Trace variable t Q –New clauses (t Q   a), (t Q   b), (t Q   c) CL proof of PT(f,  ) works by branching negatively on t Q ’s in bottom up order of clauses of 

17. PT(f,  ) : Proof Trace Extension (a  b  x)(c   x) Q  (a  b  c)  ………… Formula f RES proof 

18. PT(f,  ) : Proof Trace Extension (a  b  x)(c   x) Q  (a  b  c)  ………… Formula f RES proof  Trace variable t Q New clauses (t Q   a) (t Q   b) (t Q   c) PT(f,  )

19. PT(f,  ) : Proof Trace Extension (a  b  x)(c   x) Q  (a  b  c)  ………… Formula f RES proof  Trace variable t Q New clauses (t Q   a) (t Q   b) (t Q   c) PT(f,  )  t Q  a  b  c x  x false FirstNewCut (a  b  c)

20. How hard is PT(f,  ) ? Hard for Regular RES: reduction argument  Fact 1: PT(f,  ) | TraceVars = true  f  Fact 2: If  is a Regular RES proof of g, then  | x is a Regular RES proof of g | x  Fact 3: f does not have small Regular RES proofs! Easy for CL: by construction CL branches exactly once on each trace variable  # branches = size(  ) = poly

21. Implications? DPLL algorithms w/o clause learning are hopeless for certain formula classes CL algorithms have potential for small proofs Can we use such analysis to harness this potential?

22. Pebbling Formulas (a1  a2)(a1  a2) E ABC F T f G = Pebbling(G) A node X is “pebbled” if (x1 or x2) holds Source axioms: A, B, C are pebbled Pebbling axioms: A and B are pebbled  D is pebbled Target axioms: T is not pebbled (b1  b2)(b1  b2)(c1  c2)(c1  c2) (e1  e2)(e1  e2) (d1  d2)(d1  d2) (t1  t2)(t1  t2)

23. Pebbling Formulas (a1  a2)(a1  a2) E ABC F T f G = Pebbling(G) A node X is “pebbled” if (x1 or x2) holds Source axioms: A, B, C are pebbled Pebbling axioms: A and B are pebbled  D is pebbled Target axioms: T is not pebbled (b1  b2)(b1  b2)(c1  c2)(c1  c2) (e1  e2)(e1  e2) (d1  d2)(d1  d2) (t1  t2)(t1  t2)

24. Grid vs. Randomized Pebbling (a1  a2)(a1  a2) b1b1 (c 1  c 2  c 3 ) (d 1  d 2  d 3 ) l1l1 (h1  h2)(h1  h2) (i 1  i 2  i 3  i 4 ) e1e1 (g1  g2)(g1  g2) f1f1 (n1  n2)(n1  n2) m1m1 (a1  a2)(a1  a2)(b1  b2)(b1  b2)(c1  c2)(c1  c2)(d1  d2)(d1  d2) (e1  e2)(e1  e2) (h1  h2)(h1  h2) (t1  t2)(t1  t2) (i1  i2)(i1  i2) (g1  g2)(g1  g2)(f1  f2)(f1  f2)

25. Branching Sequence  B = (x 1, x 4, : x 3, x 1, : x 8, : x 2, : x 4, x 7, : x 1, x 2 ) OLD: “Pick unassigned var x” NEW: “Pick next literal y from B; delete it from B; if y already assigned, repeat”

26. Statement of Results  DPLL-Learn*: Any clause learner with 1-UIP learning scheme and fast backtracking, e.g. zChaff [Moskewicz et al ’01]  Efficient :  (|f G |) time to generate B G  Effective:  (|f G |) branching steps to solve f G using B G Given a pebbling graph G, can efficiently generate a branching sequence B G such that DPLL-Learn*(f G, B G ) is empirically exponentially faster than DPLL-Learn*(f G )

27. Genseq on Grid Pebbling Graphs (a1  a2)(a1  a2)(b1  b2)(b1  b2)(c1  c2)(c1  c2)(d1  d2)(d1  d2) (e1  e2)(e1  e2) (h1  h2)(h1  h2) (t1  t2)(t1  t2) (i1  i2)(i1  i2) (g1  g2)(g1  g2)(f1  f2)(f1  f2)

28. Results: Grid Pebbling Original zChaff Modified zChaff Naive DPLL

29. Results: Randomized Pebbling Original zChaff Modified zChaff Naive DPLL

30. 2. Randomized Restarts

31. Restarts  Run-time distribution typically has high variance across instances or random seeds  tie-breaking in branching heuristic  heavy-tailed – infinite mean & variance!  Leverage by restart strategies  Heavy-tailed  exponential distribution short long

32. Generalized Restarts  At conflict backtrack to arbitrary point in search tree  Lowest conflict decision variable = backjumping  Root = restart  Other = partial restart  Adding clause learning makes almost any restart scheme complete (J. Marques-Silva 2002)

33. Aggressive Backtracking  zChaff – at conflict backtrack to above highest conflict variable  Not traditional backjumping!  Wasteful?  Learned clause saves “most” work  Learned clause provides new evidence about best branching variable and value!

34. 4. Component Analysis #SAT – Model Counting

35. Why #SAT?  Prototypical #P complete problem  Can encode probabilistic inference  Natural encoding for counting problems

36. Bayesian Nets to Weighted Counting  Introduce new vars so all internal vars are deterministic A B A~A B.2.6 A.1

37. Bayesian Nets to Weighted Counting  Introduce new vars so all internal vars are deterministic A B A~A B.2.6 A.1 A B PQ A.1P.2Q.6

38. Bayesian Nets to Weighted Counting  Weight of a model is product of variable weights  Weight of a formula is sum of weights of its models A B PQ A.1P.2Q.6

39. Bayesian Nets to Weighted Counting  Let F be the formula defining all internal variables  Pr(query) = weight(F & query) A B PQ A.1P.2Q.6

40. Bayesian Nets to Counting  Unweighted counting is case where all non-defined variables have weight 0.5  Introduce sets of variables to define other probabilities to desired accuracy  In practice: just modify #SAT algorithm to weighted #SAT

41. Component Analysis  Can use DPLL to count models  Just don’t stop when first assignment is found  If formula breaks into separate components (no shared variables), can count each separately and multiply results: #SAT(C1  C2) = #SAT(C1) * #SAT(C2)  RelSat (Bayardo) – CL + component analysis at each node in search tree  50 variable #SAT  State of the art circa 2000

42. 5. Formula Caching with Fahiem Bacchus, Paul Beame, Toni Pitassi, & Tian Sang

43. Formula Caching  New idea: cache counts of residual formulas at each node  Bacchus, Dalmao & Pitassi 2003  Beame, Impagliazzo, Pitassi, & Segerlind 2003  Matches time/space tradeoffs of best known exact probabilistic inference algorithms

44. #SAT with Component Caching #SAT(F) a = 1; a = 1; for each G  to_components(F) { if (G ==  ) m = 1; else if (   G) m = 0; else if (in_cache(G)) m = cache_value(G); else { select v  F; m = ½ * #SAT(G|v) + m = ½ * #SAT(G|v) + ½ * #SAT(G|  v); ½ * #SAT(G|  v); insert_cache(G,m);} insert_cache(G,m);} a = a * m; } return a;

45. #SAT with Component Caching #SAT(F) a = 1; a = 1; for each G  to_components(F) { if (G ==  ) m = 1; else if (   G) m = 0; else if (in_cache(G)) m = cache_value(G); else { select v  F; m = ½ * #SAT(G|v) + m = ½ * #SAT(G|v) + ½ * #SAT(G|  v); ½ * #SAT(G|  v); insert_cache(G,m);} insert_cache(G,m);} a = a * m; } return a; Computes probability m that a random truth assignment satisfies the formula: # models = 2 m

46. Putting it All Together  Goal: combine  Clause learning  Component analysis  Formula caching to create a practical #SAT algorithm to create a practical #SAT algorithm  Not quite as straightforward as it looks!

47. Issue 1: How Much to Cache?  Everything  Infeasible – 10 50 + nodes  Only sub-formulas on current branch  Linear space  Fixed variable ordering + no clause learning == Recursive Conditioning (Darwiche 2002)  Surely we can do better...

48. Efficient Cache Management  Ideal: make maximum use of RAM, but not one bit more  Space & age-bounded caching  Separate-chaining hash table  Lazy deletion of entries older than K when searching chains  Constant amortized time  If sum of all chains becomes too large, do global cleanup  Rare in practice

49. Issue 2: Interaction of Component Analysis & Clause Learning  Without CL, sub-formulas decrease in size  With CL, sub-formulas may become huge  1,000 clauses  1,000,000 learned clauses F F|p F|pF|p

50. Why this is a Problem  Finding connected components at each node requires linear time  Way too costly for learned clauses  Components using learned clauses unlikely to reoccur  Defeats purpose of formula caching

51. Suggestion  Use only clauses derived from original formula for  Component analysis  “Keys” for cached entries  Use all the learned clauses for unit propagation  Can this possibly be sound? Almost!

52. Main Theorem  Therefore: for SAT sub-formulas it is safe to use learned clauses for unit propagation! F|  G|  A2A1A3

53. UNSAT Sub-formulas  But if F|  is unsatisfiable, all bets are off...  Without component caching, there is still no problem – because the final value is 0 in any case  With component caching, could cause incorrect values to be cached  Solution  Flush siblings (& their descendents) of unsat components from cache

54. #SAT CC+CL #SAT(F) a = 1; s =  ; for each G  to_components(F) { if (in_cache(G)) { m = cache_value(G);} else{ m = split(G); insert_cache(G,m); insert_cache(G,m); a = a * m; a = a * m; if (m==0) { flush_cache(s); if (m==0) { flush_cache(s); break; } break; } else s = s  {G}; else s = s  {G}; }} }} return a;

55. #SAT CC+CL continued split(G)  if (G ==  ) return 1;  if (   G) { learn_new_clause() return 0; } select v  G; return ½ * #SAT(G|v) + ½ * #SAT(G|  v);

56. Results: Pebbling Formulas 30 layers = 930 variables, 1771 clauses

57. Results: Planning Problems

58. Results: Circuit Synthesis

59. Random 3-SAT

62. Summary  Dramatic progress in automating propositional inference over last decade  Progress due to the careful refinement of a handful of ideas –  DPLL, clause learning, restarts, component analysis, formula caching  The successful unification of these elements for #SAT gives renewed hope for a universal reasoning engine!

63. What’s Next?  Evaluation of weighted-#SAT version on Bayesian networks  Better component ordering and component-aware variable branching heuristics  Optimal restart policies for #SAT CC+CL  Adapt techniques for sampling methods – approximate inference???