1. Research methods in clinical psychology: An introduction for students and practitioners Chris Barker, Nancy Pistrang, and Robert Elliott CHAPTER 7 Observation

2. Advantages of observation Direct, objective measure of behaviour Assesses behaviour in its context Examines sequence over time Does not require participant's awareness of behaviour

3. Disadvantages of observation Potential reactivity Only good for overt behaviours (but can observe “verbal behaviour”)

4. Qualitative observation Participant observation Text-based methods

5. Participant observation Roots: ethnographic approach in anthropology Researcher is “immersed” in setting Systematic, usually unstructured, observation Detailed records (“field notes”), generally from memory –“If it’s not written down, it never happened” Examples: –Goffman (1961) “Asylums” –Taylor & Bogdan (1998)

6. Participant observation (ctd.) Methodological problems –reactivity –observer bias Ethical issues –covert observation –witnessing illegal or immoral behaviour

7. Text-based research Close study of communication (written or spoken) Many sources of text Focus on structure of communication –underlying assumptions and meanings Discourse analysis

8. Several different versions (from sociology, linguistics, etc.) British psychologists influenced by Potter and Wetherell's (1987) approach: –Works from detailed transcripts –Functionalist: what language does –“Discourse repertoire” –“Subject positioning” Examples: – Madill & Barkham (1997) –Harper (1994)

9. Quantitative observation: background Behavioural observation: –eliminate inferences Psychotherapy process research: –objective record of interaction Content analysis: –mass media research

10. Quantitative observation: methods Narrative recording –qualitative record Event recording –overall frequency data Interval recording –frequency within intervals Time sampling –record at specific times /ctd.

11. Observation methods ctd. Sequential act coding –code behaviours in order Duration recording –record times taken Global rating scales –overall judgement Environmental measures –overall activity patterns

12. Pragmatics of observation Define behaviours –level of inference Develop coding manual Recruit and train raters Check reliability Code actual data Continuously monitor reliability