2. 1 CIE AS Cognitive Psychology Billington et al 2007 Cognitive style predicts… Learning and Individual Differences, 17, 260-268

3. 2 Men ♂ and Women ♀ What differences are there between men’s and women’s behaviour? And why? What are men generally better at than women and what are women generally better at than men? Look at the following page

4. 3 ♂ and ♀ - can you add more? Mathematics Physics Map reading Mental 2d & 3d rotation Empathy Emotional responses Social nuances Comforting Judging character Building

5. 4 Billington J., Baron-Cohen S. & Wheelwright S., 2007 Cognitive style predicts entry into physical sciences and humanities: Questionnaire and performance tests of empathy and systemizing What do you think are the key words or phrases in this title? We’ll have a look at all parts of this title as we look at the study…

6. 5 Cognitive style Do you know your cognitive style? How do you think? Logical/Rational? Intuitive/Instinctive? How do you solve problems? Mathematical problems? Relationship problems? Others’ problems? You have no problems??

7. 6 Empathizing & Systemizing 260-1 Empathizing definition 261, p1 Cognitive + affective components Cog: Understanding another’s mind (ToM) Aff: the resulting emotional response

8. 7 Empathising & Systemising 260-1 Systemizing definition 261, p2 Analyses rules which underlie systems Input → Operation → Output technical, natural, abstract, social, spatial, organisable May have physiological basis in R hemisphere

9. 8 LEFT Systemizing? RIGHT Empathizing?

10. The E-S model 261 & 263 Two self-report questionnaires, forced choice format SQ (& SQ-R) EQ Evaluate this method E.g. objectivity, experimental validity, turning qualitative experience into quantitative data, reductionism… anything else? 9

11. E-S theory predicts… 261 What does E-S theory predict about ♀ and ♂ drives, on average? Baron-Cohen 2002 N.b. There are always atypical males and females. E-S theory predicts a tendency. ♀ and ♂ select different fields of study and/or occupations not due to gender, but S>E and E>S differences What courses/careers are more popular for S>E personalities? And for E>S? 10

12. E-S theory: some evidence 262 Wheelwright et al. (2006) Physical science students: S>E Humanities students: E>S Her study did not include any performance measures as validation. Billington et al. (2007) use questionnaire and performance measures of E and S. 11

13. 12 Aims 262 1. Retest sex ratio in physical sciences and humanities 2. Test if ♂ show S>E profile and ♀ show E>S profile using performance and questionnaire assessment 3. Test if physical science students show S>E and humanities students show E>S using q. and p. assessment 4. Test if cognitive style > sex in explaining enrolment into courses

14. 13 Method 1/5 262-3 Participants Who were they? Can you spot any ethnocentric bias? Is that an issue for external validity? Why test for handedness? Were any participants excluded?

15. 14 Method 2/5 263 Ps completed two questionnaires and two performance tasks online.questionnaires Evaluate: Experimental validity Reliability Convenience …Anything else? Click here to do the EQ and SQ tests

16. This graph is an illustration and does not show the results for Billington et al 2007. 15 Method 3/5 263 Psychometric questionnaires EQ and SQ-R 5 ‘brain types’ xE, E, B, S, xS Why those %? Billington et al. said so 2.5% 35% 65% 97.5%

17. Method 4/5 263-4 Embedded Figures Task Forced choice (of 2) Tests what? Eyes Task Baron-Cohen et al., (2001) Forced choice (of 4) Tests what? 16

18. Method 5/5 264 Scoring Reflects error rate and reaction time 0-24 for FC-EFT (12 items) 0-72 for Eyes test (36 items) … move on … 17

19. 18 Results 264-268 Sex difference & type of study? 59% physical science students → ♂ 70% humanities students → ♀ Sex difference & cognitive style? 66% ♂29% ♀ → S or xS 37% ♀10% ♂→ E or xE Sex difference & performance tasks? Eyes test → ♀>♂ FC-EFT → no sig. diff. So… WHAT DOES THIS ALL MEAN in terms of aims 1&2?

20. Type of study & cognitive style? Physical science→ 56% S/xS, 14% E/xE Humanities→ 42% E/xE, 30% S/xS Type of study & performance tasks? FC-EFT → phys. sci. > hum. Eyes Task → hum. > phys. sci. 19 Results 264-268 What does this all MEAN in terms of aim 3?

21. 20 Results 264-268 Which of these IVs the strongest predictor for entry into a subject? And what does this MEAN in terms of aim 4? Brain type / cognitive styleSexFC-EFTEyes Task

22. 21 Results – exam practice So… now… What were the main findings of Billington et al. 2007? Practise the skills: (knowledge + analysis = full marks )

23. 22 Conclusions 266-7 What relationships are there between 1. sex, 2. cognitive style, 3. cognitive performance and 4. academic degree subject? As many as you can…

24. 23 Evaluation Approaches: ind diffs, cog, phys, dev, soc Issues Validity: Eco. Eth. Exp. Ext. Reliability Usefulness Debates Situation vs. Disposition Reductionism vs. Holism Nature vs. Nurture

25. 24 Applications 266-7 E- or S-style seems a better predictor of academic / career suitability than gender Better use of success-prediction resources, e.g. careers advice Classrooms – educators can adapt their methods e.g. Gredlein & Bjorklund 2005 Improve understanding between ♂ & ♀

26. 25 Terminology testing time Empathizing & EQ Systemizing & SQ-R Cognitive style / brain type Theory of mind Cognitive & affective components Traits Dimorphic / dimorphism 262

27. Further reading Go back to the first slide. Click on the researchers’ pictures to open their homepages. Also: Cognitive styles Learning styles Autism Right and left brain hemispheres 26

28. 27 Some AS exam questions Paper 1A (Specimen 2012) Billington, Baron-Cohen and Wheelwright (empathizing and systemizing) used a forced choice version of the Embedded Figures Task to measure systematizing. (a) What is meant by a ‘forced choice task’? [2] (b) The Eyes Task collected quantitative data. Why might psychologists choose to collect quantitative data? [2] Paper 2B (Specimen 2012, edited) (a) Outline what is meant by quantitative and qualitative data. [2] Using the studies from the list below, answer the questions which follow. Billington, Baron-Cohen and Wheelwright (empathizing and systemizing) Piliavin, Rodin and Piliavin (subway Samaritans) Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreaming) (b) Describe the quantitative and/or qualitative data in each of these studies. [9] (c) What problems may psychologists have when their research has only quantitative or qualitative data? [9]