1. Information Gathering: Interactive Methods Systems Analysis and Design, 8e Kendall & Kendall 4

2. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-2 Major Topics Interviewing Interview preparation Question types Arranging questions The interview report Joint Application Design (JAD) Involvement Location Questionnaires Writing questions Using scales Design Administering

3. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-3 Interviewing Interviewing is an important method for collecting data on human and system information requirements. Interviews reveal information about: Interviewee opinions Interviewee feelings Goals Key HCI concerns

4. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-4 Interview Preparation Reading background material. Establishing interview objectives. Deciding whom to interview. Preparing the interviewee. Deciding on question types and structure.

5. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-5 Open-Ended Questions Open-ended interview questions allow interviewees to respond how they wish, and to what length they wish. Open-ended interview questions are appropriate when the analyst is interested in breadth and depth of reply.

6. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-6 Advantages of Open-Ended Questions Puts the interviewee at ease. Allows the interviewer to pick up on the interviewee’s vocabulary. Provides richness of detail. Reveals avenues of further questioning that may have gone untapped.

7. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-7 Advantages of Open-Ended Questions (Continued) Provides more interest for the interviewee. Allows more spontaneity. Makes phrasing easier for the interviewer. Useful if the interviewer is unprepared.

8. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-8 Disadvantages of Open-Ended Questions May result in too much irrelevant detail Possibly losing control of the interview. May take too much time for the amount of useful information gained. Potentially seeming that the interviewer is unprepared. Possibly giving the impression that the interviewer is on a “fishing expedition”.

9. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-9 Closed Interview Questions Closed interview questions limit the number of possible responses. Closed interview questions are appropriate for generating precise, reliable data that is easy to analyze. The methodology is efficient, and it requires little skill for interviewers to administer.

10. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-10 Benefits of Closed Interview Questions Saving interview time. Easily comparing interviews. Getting to the point. Keeping control of the interview. Covering a large area quickly. Getting to relevant data.

11. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-11 Disadvantages of Closed Interview Questions Boring for the interviewee. Failure to obtain rich details. Missing main ideas. Failing to build rapport between interviewer and interviewee.

12. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-12 Bipolar Questions Bipolar questions are those that may be answered with a “yes” or “no” or “agree” or “disagree.” Bipolar questions should be used sparingly. A special kind of closed question.

13. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-13 Probes Probing questions elicit more detail about previous questions. The purpose of probing questions is: To get more meaning. To clarify. To draw out and expand on the interviewee’s point. May be either open-ended or closed.

14. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-14 Arranging Questions Pyramid Starting with closed questions and working toward open-ended questions. Funnel Starting with open-ended questions and working toward closed questions. Diamond Starting with closed, moving toward open-ended, and ending with closed questions.

15. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-15 Closing the Interview Always ask “Is there anything else that you would like to add?” Summarize and provide feedback on your impressions. Ask whom you should talk with next. Set up any future appointments. Thank them for their time and shake hands.

16. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-16 Interview Report Write as soon as possible after the interview. Provide an initial summary, then more detail. Review the report with the respondent.

17. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-17 Questionnaires Questionnaires are useful in gathering information from key organization members about: Attitudes Beliefs Behaviors Characteristics

18. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-18 Use questionnaires when: People to be questioned are widely dispersed. Many people are involved with the project, and need to know the approval level of a proposed system. Exploratory work is needed to gauge opinion. Need to identify and address problems with the current system.

19. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-19 Question Types Questions are designed as either: Open-ended Try to anticipate the response you will get. Well suited for getting opinions. Closed Use when all the options may be listed. When the options are mutually exclusive.

20. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-20 Questionnaire Language Simple Specific Short Not patronizing Free of bias Addressed to those who are knowledgeable Technically accurate Appropriate for the reading level of the respondent

21. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-21 Measurement Scales The two different forms of measurement scales are: Nominal Interval

22. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-22 Central Tendency Central tendency occurs when respondents rate everything as average. Improve by making the differences smaller at the two ends. Adjust the strength of the descriptors. Create a scale with more points.

23. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-23 Halo Effect When the impression about an item in one question carries into the next question. Solution: change the focus from items to traits, by placing one trait and several items on each page.

24. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-24 Designing the Questionnaire Allow ample white space. Allow ample space to write or type in responses. Make it easy for respondents to clearly mark their answers. Be consistent in style.

25. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-25 Order of Questions Place most important questions first. Cluster items of similar content together. Introduce less controversial questions first.

26. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall4-26 Electronically Submitting Questionnaires Reduced costs. Collecting and storing the results electronically.

27. Information Gathering: Unobtrusive Methods Systems Analysis and Design, 8e Kendall & Kendall 5

28. Kendall & KendalCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall5-28 Major Topics Sampling Quantitative document analysis Qualitative document analysis Observation STROBE Applying STROBE

29. Kendall & KendalCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall5-29 Sampling A process of systematically selecting representative elements of a population Involves two key decisions: What to examine Which people to consider

30. Kendall & KendalCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall5-30 Need for Sampling The reasons systems analysts do sampling are: Containing costs Speeding up the data gathering Improving effectiveness Reducing bias

31. Kendall & KendalCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall5-31 Sampling Design To design a good sample, a systems analyst must follow four steps: Determining the data to be collected or described Determining the population to be sampled Choosing the type of sample Deciding on the sample size

32. Kendall & KendalCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall5-32 The Sample Size Decision Determine the attribute. Locate the database or reports where the attribute can be found. Estimate the proportion of population that has the attribute Make the subjective decision regarding the acceptable interval estimate i. Choose the confidence level, and lookup z. Calculate the standard error. Determine the sample size.

33. Kendall & KendalCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall5-33 Analyzing Quantitative Documents Reports used for decision making Performance reports Records Data capture forms Ecommerce and other transactions

34. Kendall & KendalCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall5-34 Observation Observation provides insight on what organizational members actually do. See firsthand the relationships that exist between decision makers and other organizational members Can also reveal important clues regarding HCI concerns

35. Kendall & KendalCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall5-35 Analyst’s Playscript Involves observing the decision-makers behavior and recording their actions using a series of action verbs Examples: Talking Sampling Corresponding Deciding

36. Kendall & KendalCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall5-36 STROBE STRuctured OBservation of the Environment—a technique for observing the decision-maker’s physical environment

37. Kendall & KendalCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall5-37 External Information Sources Trade journals or newspapers indicate the person values outside information. Company reports, memos, and policy handbooks indicate the person values internal information.

38. Kendall & KendalCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall5-38 Office Lighting and Color Warm, incandescent lighting indicates: A tendency toward more personal communication More informal communication Brightly lit, bright colors indicate: More formal communications (memos, reports)

39. Kendall & KendalCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall5-39 Clothing Male Formal two-piece suit—maximum authority Casual dressing (sport jacket/slacks)— more participative decision making Female Skirted suit—maximum authority

40. Agile Modeling and Prototyping Systems Analysis and Design, 8e Kendall & Kendall 6

41. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall6-41 Agile Modeling, but First Prototyping Agile modeling is a collection of innovative, user-centered approaches to systems development. Prototyping is an information-gathering technique useful in seeking user reactions, suggestions, innovations, and revision plans.

42. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall6-42 Major Topics Prototyping Rapid application development (RAD) Agile modeling

43. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall6-43 Prototyping Patched-up Nonoperational First-of-a-series Selected features

44. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall6-44 Patched-Up Prototype A system that works but is patched up or patched together. A working model that has all the features but is inefficient. Users can interact with the system. Retrieval and storage of information may be inefficient.

45. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall6-45 Nonoperational Scale Models A nonworking scale mode that is set up to test certain aspects of the design. A nonworking scale model of an information system might be produced when the coding required by the application is too expensive to prototype but when a useful idea of the system can be gained through prototyping of the input and output only.

46. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall6-46 First-of-a-Series Prototype Creating a pilot Prototype is completely operational Useful when many installations of the same information system are planned A full-scale prototype is installed in one or two locations first, and if successful, duplicates are installed at all locations based on customer usage patterns and other key factors.

47. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall6-47 Selected Features Prototype Building an operational model that includes some, but not all, of the features that the final system will have Some, but not all, essential features are included Built in modules Part of the actual system

48. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall6-48 Prototyping as an Alternative to the Systems Life Cycle Two main problems with the SDLC Extended time required to go through the development life cycle User requirements change over time Rather than using prototyping to replace the SDLC use prototyping as a part of the SDLC

49. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall6-49 Guidelines for Developing a Prototype Work in manageable modules. Build the prototype rapidly. Modify the prototype in successive iterations. Stress the user interface.

50. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall6-50 Disadvantages of Prototyping It can be difficult to manage prototyping as a project in the larger systems effort. Users and analysts may adopt a prototype as a completed system.

51. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall6-51 Advantages of Prototyping Potential for changing the system early in its development Opportunity to stop development on a system that is not working Possibility of developing a system that more closely addresses users’ needs and expectations

52. Using Dataflow Diagrams Systems Analysis and Design, 8e Kendall & Kendall 7

53. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall7-53 Data Flow Diagrams Graphically characterize data processes and flows in a business system. Depict: System inputs Processes Outputs

54. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall7-54 Advantages of the Data Flow Approach Freedom from committing to the technical implementation too early Understanding of the interrelatedness of systems and subsystems Communicating current system knowledge to users Analysis of the proposed system

55. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall7-55 Basic Symbols A double square for an external entity An arrow for movement of data from one point to another A rectangle with rounded corners for the occurrence of a transforming process An open-ended rectangle for a data store

56. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall7-56 The Four Basic Symbols Used in Data Flow Diagrams, Their Meanings, and Examples (Figure 7.1)

57. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall7-57 External Entities Represent another department, a business, a person, or a machine A source or destination of data, outside the boundaries of the system Should be named with a noun

58. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall7-58 Data Flow Shows movement of data from one point to another Described with a noun Arrowhead indicates the flow direction Represents data about a person, place, or thing

59. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall7-59 Process Denotes a change in or transformation of data Represents work being performed in the system Naming convention: Assign the name of the whole system when naming a high-level process. To name a major subsystem attach the word subsystem to the name. Use the form verb-adjective-noun for detailed processes.

60. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall7-60 Data Store A depository for data that allows examination, addition, and retrieval of data Named with a noun, describing the data Data stores are usually given a unique reference number, such as D1, D2, D3 Represents a: Database Computerized file Filing cabinet

61. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall7-61 Creating the Context Diagram The highest level in a data flow diagram Contains only one process, representing the entire system The process is given the number 0 All external entities, as well as major data flows are shown

62. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall7-62 Basic Rules The data flow diagram must have one process. Must not be any freestanding objects A process must have both an input and output data flow. A data store must be connected to at least one process. External entities should not be connected to one another.

63. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall7-63 Context Diagram (Figure 7.3)

64. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall7-64 Drawing Diagram 0 The explosion of the context diagram. May include up to nine processes. Each process is numbered. Major data stores and all external entities are included.

65. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall7-65 Drawing Diagram 0 (Continued) Start with the data flow from an entity on the input side. Work backwards from an output data flow. Examine the data flow to or from a data store. Analyze a well-defined process. Take note of any fuzzy areas.

66. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall7-66 Note Greater Detail in Diagram 0 (Figure 7.3)

67. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall7-67 Data Flow Diagram Levels Data flow diagrams are built in layers. The top level is the context level. Each process may explode to a lower level. The lower level diagram number is the same as the parent process number. Processes that do not create a child diagram are called primitive.

68. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall7-68 Creating Child Diagrams Each process on diagram 0 may be exploded to create a child diagram. A child diagram cannot produce output or receive input that the parent process does not also produce or receive. The child process is given the same number as the parent process. Process 3 would explode to Diagram 3.

69. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall7-69 Creating Child Diagrams (Continued) Entities are usually not shown on the child diagrams below Diagram 0. If the parent process has data flow connecting to a data store, the child diagram may include the data store as well. When a process is not exploded, it is called a primitive process.

70. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall7-70 Developing Logical Data Flow Diagrams Better communication with users More stable systems Better understanding of the business by analysts Flexibility and maintenance Elimination of redundancy and easier creation of the physical model

71. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall7-71 Developing Physical Data Flow Diagrams Clarifying which processes are performed by humans and which are automated Describing processes in more detail Sequencing processes that have to be done in a particular order Identifying temporary data stores Specifying actual names of files and printouts Adding controls to ensure the processes are done properly

72. Kendall & KendallCopyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall7-72 Physical Data Flow Diagrams Contain Many Items Not Found in Logical Data Flow Diagrams (Figure 7.10)