1.  Methane gas CH 4 space Organic Chemistry: Study of the compounds of Carbon 7 million examples Inorganic Chemistry: Study of molecules without Carbon ( 1.5 million examples)

2. Hydrocarbons Organic molecules consisting only of carbon and hydrogen with covalent bonds. Major components of fossil fuels such as coal, oil or gas. They consists of partially decomposed remains of organisms that lived millions of years ago. Methane is a fossil fuel, it is easily made in anaerobic conditions with manure and bacteria ( also in swamps or dumps)

3. Empirical Formula = formula represents the lowest ratios of the element in a compound Molecular Formula = a molecular formula describes the numbers of different kinds of atoms in a molecule Structural Formula = a structural formula represents a two-dimensional model of how the atoms are bonded to each other Condensed Structural Formula = structural formula written not drawn

4. Draw a carbon atom How many monovalent atoms can bond to carbon? What shape and bond angle will carbon molecule have? What type of bond? Covalent or ionic Sigma Bond Pi Bond

5. Recall that a molecular formula (A) describes the numbers of different kinds of atoms in a molecule a structural formula represents a two- dimensional model of how the atoms are bonded to each other. Each dash represents a bonding pair of electrons. Empirical formula represents ratios

6. Carbon skeletons can vary in length.

7. Homologous series Alkanes occur in what is called a homologous series. A series of compound of uniform chemical type Showing gradations in physical properties Having a general formula for its members Each member having a similar method of preparation Each successive compound differs from the one before it only by a CH 2

8. Alkanes Only have single bonds between carbons (saturated) Have maximum amount of Hydrogens End with –ane C n H 2n+2 Fairly unreative but do burn in oxygen, used as fuel due to high heat of combustion, cheap and clean products Tetrahedral shape (not planar) 109.5 o angles Non-polar so immiscible in water Ethane Butane Alkanes are fairly unreactive (but they do burn well) C1-C4 (gas) C5-C12 (liquids) C13-C31 (waxy solids) C32+ (solids).

9. Defination Saturated = chemical compound that has a chain of carbon atoms linked together by single bonds and has atoms filling all of the other bonding orbitals of the carbon atoms. chemical compoundcarbonatomssingle bondsbonding orbitals (SINGLE BONDS ONLY- FULL) Unsaturated compound is a chemical compound that contains carbon-carbon double bonds or triple bonds, such as those found in alkenes or alkynes, respectively.double bondstriple bondsalkenesalkynes (CONTAINS DOUBLE/ TRIPLE BOND)

10. C1to C4 Gases C5 to C16 Liquids C17 + Waxy Solids

11. Natural gas is pure methane Bottles gas is propane and butane

12. General formula C n H 2n+2 Identify the number of H’s in each alkane C5Hx C10Hx C16Hx C55Hx C3Hx C28Hx C21Hx C4Hx C15Hx What state?

13. Also know how to draw structural formula Must know how to draw from condensed structural formula CH 3 CH 2 CH(CH 3 )CH 3

14. Structural isomers Are compounds with same molecular formula but different structural formulas The number of isomers increases tremendously as carbon skeletons increase in size. Only need to know to C5 2 Structural isomers of butane

15. Branching Skeletons may be branched or unbranched. C 4 H 10 Butane 2-methylpropane (commonly called isobutane)

16. Naming alkanes (IUPAC) Identify the longest continuous chain. The locations or other groups of atoms attached to the longest chain are identified and numbered by counting from the end of the molecule which keeps the numbering system as low as possible. Hydrocarbon groups that are attached to the longest continuous chain and named using the parent name and changing the –ane suffix to –yl. Groups attached priority is given based on alphabetical order

17. Functional groups Is an atom or group of atoms which is responsible for the characteristic properties of a series of organic compounds Eg methyl,ethyl,propyl Eg halogens Electronegative functional groups increase the molecules reactivity with polar molecules and solubility in polar molecule eg water

18. Chloroalkanes Physical state: Liquid, except for chloromethane and chloroethane, which are gases at room temperature Boiling points higher than the corresponding alkanes, due to polar C-Cl bond(s) ( but only weak) Not soluble in water Higher boiling pt than corresponding alkanes (most liquids except C1 &C2) Soluble in non-polar solvents such as cyclohexane Because of their weak polarity, they are useful organic solvents, e.g. for removing grease and oil from machinery removing oil etc. from clothes - dry cleaning Fully halogenated alkanes are flame retardant so used in fire extinguishers

19. Naming chloroalkanes Last part of name comes from base alkane on which the molecule is built, e.g. chloroethane [2 carbons] Number of chlorine atoms indicated by prefix mono, di, tri, tetra etc. in front of chloromethane, e.g. trichloromethane Position of each chlorine atom given by a number before the name, e.g. 1,2,2-trichloropropane

20. Alkenes Alkenes are different to alkanes; they contain DOUBLE COVALENT bonds. CnH 2n Unsaturated Ethene is the 1 st member C2 to C4 are gases, boiling pt increases with increasing carbon chain More reactive than alkane Undergoes addition rxns Ethene Bute ne Test for alkenes because they turn bromine water colourless And acidified KMnO 4 colourless. planar

22. Ethene is the gas that ripens fruit, and a ripe fruit emits the gas, which will act on unripe fruit. Thus, a ripe tomato placed in a sealed bag with green tomatoes will help ripen them. Ethene is used to make ethanol for industrial use Ethene is used to make polyethene By polymerisation rxn (addition rxn with H 2 as a by product)

23. –Naming is similar to naming alkanes except: The longest continuous chain must contain the double bond. The base name now ends in –ene. The carbons are numbered so as to keep the number for the double bond as low as possible. The base name is given a number which identifies the location of the double bond. This takes priority to functional gps –An alkyne is a hydrocarbon with at least one carbon to carbon triple bond. –Naming an alkyne is similar to the alkenes, except the base name ends in –yne. –Even more reactive due to triple bond

24. Aldehydes -CHO end in anal planar Boiling points higher than the corresponding alkanes, due to polar  + C = O  - group, but lower than the corresponding alcohols Short chain aldehydes are soluble in water due to the polar carbonyl group As the number of carbon atoms in a molecule of the ester increases, solubility in water decreases, while solubility in cyclohexane increases Aromatic aldehyde Found in almond kernels

25. Ketone End in -one Physical state: Butanone and propanone are liquids at room temperature Boiling points higher than the corresponding alkanes, due to polar  + C = O  - group, but lower than the corresponding alcohols Short chain ketones such as propanone are soluble in water due to the polar carbonyl group Ketones are soluble in non-polar solvents such as cyclohexane Propanone is used as a solvent (e.g. In nail varnish remover)

26. Carboxylic acid End in –oic acid Physical state: Methanoic acid and ethanoic acid are liquids, while propanoic acid and butanoic acid are solids due to H bonding Short chain carboxylic acids are soluble in water due to the polar COOH group Carboxylic acids are soluble in non-polar solvents such as cyclohexane Boiling points higher than the corresponding alcohols This is because carboxylic acids form dimers, where two carboxylic acid molecules are held together by two hydrogen bonds This is possible due to polarity in both the C=O and O-H bonds in each carboxylic acid molecule Methanoic acid is found in the sting of ants and nettles Ethanoic acid is the principal acid in vinegar Ethanoic acid is used in the manufacture of cellulose acetate Propanoic acid, benzoic acid and their salts (e.g. sodium benzoate) are used as food preservatives

27. Esters Esters are formed by the reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol e.g. CH 3 COOH + CH 3 OH = CH 3 COOCH 3 + H 2 O Ethanoic acid Methanol Methyl ethanoate The first part of the ester name comes from the parent alcohol with the - anol changed to – yl and the second part of the name comes from the parent acid with the - oic acid changed to – oate. Physical state: Liquid Boiling points higher than the corresponding alkanes, but lower than the corresponding alcohols Soluble in water and non-polar solvents such as cyclohexane As the number of carbon atoms in a molecule of the ester increases, solubility in water decreases, while solubility in cyclohexane increases Occur naturally in fruits – are responsible for their flavours - and flowers – are responsible for their pleasant smells Fats and oils are naturally occurring esters of long chain carboxylic acids Ethyl ethanoate is used as a solvent for printing inks and paints

28. –An aromatic compound is a compound that contain a benzene ring. Aliphatic compound is an organic compound that consists of open chains of carbon atoms and closed chains compounds (ring) that resemble them in chemical properties eg cyclohexane and cyclohexene Organic compounds

29. The "straight" chain has carbon atoms that are able to rotate freely around their single bonds, sometimes linking up in a closed ring. Ring compounds of the first four cycloalkanes. Cycloalkanes are alkanes (only carbon to carbon single bonds) which form a ring structure.eg cyclohexane

30. Aromatic Hydrocarbons Contain benzene rings Benzene: C 6 H 6, unreactive (less than expected), alternating double and single bonds with bond length between single and double bond length/ stable/insoluble in water/toxic/ carcinogenic/good organic solvent/planar Delocalised electrons

31. Range and scope of aromatic chemistry Methyl benzene is used as a industrial solvent Pharmaceutical compounds, e.g. Morphine Herbicides, e.g. Diuron Detergents, e.g. Sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate Dyes, e.g. Martius Yellow The acid-base indicators phenolphthalein and methyl orange are also aromatic compounds:Phenolphthalein, Methyl orange Benzene is carcinogenic

32. Homologous series