1. Important sentence structures

2. Contents: Appositives Enumeration Structures of comparison Structures of contrast Cause-effect development

3. Appositives 同位語

4. Constructing appositives Appositives are used principally to expand the meaning of nouns by supplying defining or identifying details about them. We can construct an appositive from any sentence in which a noun phrase follows the to be verb (is, are, was, were). Eliminate the subject and the verb, insert commas or dashes. Generally, we position an appositive next to the noun that it identifies, whether that noun is at the beginning or end of a sentence.

5. Examples: Farmers try to control the poinsettia whitefly by digging up entire fields of infested crops. The poinsettia whitefly is a pesticide-resistant superbug. (Relative clause) Farmers try to control the poinsettia whitefly, which is a pesticide-resistant superbug, by digging up entire fields of infested crops. Farmers try to control the poinsettia whitefly, a pesticide-resistant superbug, by digging up entire fields of infested crops.

6. In 1904, a Saint Louis doctor introduced peanut butter as a health food for the elderly. Peanut butter is the favorite food of American children.

7. Appositives can be just as handy for summarizing or generalizing. To avoid bankruptcy, some major national airlines are joining forces with successful regional airlines, a trend that is likely to continue. Example :

8. Short summarizing appositives - appositives of one or two words - can produce a striking effect, especially at the end of a sentence. Half an hour later, the second police diver returned with the same report - nothing. Incorporated into humanistic programs in our schools is one of the most dehumanizing practice in education – standardized testing.

9. The “sunbelt” states of the South and West – states that remained rural and backward during the industrialization of our country – have come to dominate the U.S. economy during the technological revolution. Bloodhounds are friendly and gentle creatures, not the vicious beasts their name would lead you to expect. Longer summarizing appositives can fill in important background information.

10. When we pack appositives into a series, they summarize by listing characteristics: In Aesop’s fables, the animals that overcome great odds represent qualities we want for ourselves: power, intelligence, thoughtfulness, and honesty.

11. Whether positive or negative, appositive are normally nouns. Adjectives can be used as appositives, if we move them from their normal position in front of the noun they modify. My blind date turned out to be an honest, fun- loving, affectionate, and wonderful person.

12. Practice: 1. ____ Stark, forbidding, awesome, spectacular – Death Valley is a hauntingly beautiful place to visit. 2. ____Shanghai is different from other Chinese cities – more European and cosmopolitan. 3. ____ A number of U.S. presidents – including Lincoln, Roosevelt, and Kennedy – have died in office. 4. ____ Appositives are generally set off by commas, dashes, or colons. The different punctuation marks create different effects.

13. Examples: Pet owners upset by soaring veterinary costs can now register for Medipet, a pre-paid insurance plan for dogs and cats. Pet owners upset by soaring veterinary costs can now register for Medipet - a pre-paid insurance plan for dogs and cats. Pet owners upset by soaring veterinary costs can now register for Medipet: a pre-paid insurance plan for dogs and cats.

14. The popular US president John Kennedy was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches. John Kennedy, the popular US president, was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches. John Kennedy the popular US president was quite different from John Kennedy the unfaithful husband. More examples:

15. Enumeration A writer starts with a general class, then proceeds to break it down by listing some or all of its members or parts. General class Member or part

16. Four ways for Enumeration: 1. Ordinal numbers 2. Pronouns 3. Descending order 4. Ascending order

17. Listing signals (1) First, there are … Second, Third, Last, (2) The first kind / type / step is… The second (Another) The third (The next) The last (The final) - Ordinal numbers

18. (3) Descending order - To mention the most important one first. More important Less important The most essential most important primary largest chief kind is… reason is…

19. Example: My chief reason for choosing that university was its wonderful study program in agriculture. Second, Bingston hires only the finest teachers to teach in its graduate program. Then, there was Bingston’s deferred payment plan; this represented a great convenience to my parents. A final reason was the reasonable tuition.

20. (4) Ascending order - The last item is the most important. - To emphasize the importance. Less important More important The most essential most important primary largest chief kind is… reason is… kind, however, is… reason, however, is… But the Finally, and most importantly, there is

21. Example: There are several reasons why I decided to attend Bingston University. First of all, the tuition was reasonable. Second, the university had a deferred payment plan; this represented a great convenience to my parents. Another reason was the fact that Bingston hires only the finest of teachers to teach in its graduate program. My chief reason, however, was Bingston’s mandatory study program in argriculture.

22. Structures of comparison

23. Structure 1 - adj. / prep. Structure 2 – attached statements Structure 3 – correlative conjunction Structure 4 – predicate structures Structure 5 – sentence connectors Structure 6 – punctuation only

24. Structure 1 - adj. / prep. (1) same…as (2) similar to… (3) like… Kennedy was killed on the same day of the week as Lincoln. (adj) (prep) exactly / almost / practically (degree of similarity) Kennedy’s death was similar to Lincoln’s in that they both died in office. (adj) (prep) somewhat / rather / very / quite (degree of similarity) Kennedy’s death was like Lincoln’s. (prep) Like Lincoln, Kennedy refused to heed his secretary’s warming. (basis of comparison)

25. Structure 2 – attached statements (1) …too (2) …either Kennedy was succeeded by a Southern Democrat, and Lincoln was too. and so was Lincoln. Kennedy could arouse the sympathy of the public, and Lincoln could too. and so could Lincoln. Kennedy’s secretary couldn’t prevent the president’s assassination, and Lincoln’s couldn’t either and neither could Lincoln’s.

26. Structure 3 – correlative conjunction (1) both…and (2) Neither...nor Both Kennedy and Lincoln Kennedy and Lincoln both had their elections legally challenged. Neither Kennedy’s wife nor his children were expecting anything unusual to happen that day. Neither Kennedy’s children nor his wife was expecting anything unusual to happen that day.

27. Structure 4 – predicate structures (1) to resemble (2) have…in common (3) There are similarities Kennedy’s popularity resembled Lincoln’s. vaguely / closely / greatly (degree of similarity) Kennedy and Lincoln have features in common. There are similarities between Kennedy and Lincoln. certain things / many qualities / two characteristics / several aspects certain / many / several / two…

28. Structure 5 – sentence connectors Lincoln was succeeded by a Southern Democrat named Johnson ; similarly, correspondingly, likewise, in the same way, Lyndon Johnson, a Democrat from the South, succeeded Kennedy. Note: A semicolon is often used before a sentence connector. However, since each of the sentences can stand alone and be considered grammatically correct, a period can also be used after the first sentence.

29. Structure 6 – punctuation only Andrew Johnson was born in 1808; Lyndon Johnson was born in 1908. Lincoln’s secretary was Mrs. Kennedy ; likewise, Kennedy’s was Mrs. Lincoln. semicolon (;)

30. Structures of contrast

31. Structure 1 - …than Structure 2 – prepositions Structure 3 – adverbial structures Structure 4 – adjective Structure 5 – Verbal phrases Structure 6 – sentence connectors Structure 7 – conjunctions Structure 8 – punctuation only

32. Structure 1 - …than (1) is…than (2) as…as The introvert than the extrovert is quieter is more reliable is less optimistic learns more slowly The extrovert the introvert. is not as quieter as is not as reliable as does not learns as slowly as

33. Structure 2 – prepositions Unlike Contrary to As opposed to the extrovert, who craves excitement, the introvert likes a well-ordered mode of life. The extrovert, who craves excitement, the introvert likes a well-ordered mode of life in the opposite way.

34. Structure 3 – adverbial structures Whereas While the extrovert loses his or her temper quickly, the introvert seldom does. (basis of contrast)

35. Structure 4 – adjective There are two models in this case. They are completely opposite (different). They have opposite views on the question. opposite / different

36. Structure 5 – Verbal phrases The introvert contrasts with differs from is different from the extrovert in regard to in respect of with respect to his or her temper.

37. Structure 6 – sentence connectors however, on the other hand, in contrast, The extrovert loves crowds ; the introvert is fond of solitude The extrovert loves crowds; the introvert, is fond of solitude. however, on the other hand, in contrast,

38. Structure 7 – conjunctions The extrovert loves crowds, the introvert is fond of solitude. but

39. Structure 8 – punctuation only The introvert likes books ; the extrovert is fond of people.

40. The extrovert loves crowds. The introvert is fond of solitude. Practice:

41. Cause and Effect development structural signals When you use a cause-effect method of development, this will often mean that your are supporting the topic sentence by listing or enumerating.

42. Effect – what a certain situation has led to or has resulted in. Cause – reasons or explanations why something is the way it is, or why it happened the way it did. cause # 1 cause # 2 Situation cause # 3 effect # 1 Situation effect # 2 effect # 3 Focus on cause Focus on effect

43. Structure 1 – sentence connectors Structure 2 – conjunctions Structure 3 – clause structures Structure 4 – phrase structures Structure 5 – predicate structures Structure 6 – participial phrases

44. Structure 1 – sentence connectors as a result, consequently, therefore, because of this, hence, In some areas, water levels will fall ; these areas will no longer be able to support industry.

45. Structure 2 – Conjunctions (1) so (2) for (because) Some areas will no longer be able to support industry, for water levels will have fallen in these areas. In some areas, water levels will fall, so these areas will no longer be able to support industry.

46. Structure 3 – clause structures be so great that happen so fast that dry out so much land that cause such terrible damage that cause such a severe heat wave that The rise in temperature will agricultural patterns will change. (1) so…that such…that such a…that

47. Since Because Because of the fact that Due to the fact that rainfall patterns will change, water supplies will diminish. (2) Since Because

48. Structure 4 – phrase structures Because of Due to As a result of In view of the increased heat, agricultural patterns will change.

49. Structure 5 – predicate structures The predicate of a sentence includes everything from the verb to the end. In this group of structures, the cause-effect relationship is indicated either by the verb or the words following it. cause result in be the reason for be responsible for contribute to lead to Changes in water levels will changes in living patterns. (1)

50. result from be a result of be a consequence of be due to follow from Drastic changes in living patterns will changes in water levels. (2)

51. Structure 6 – participial phrases Participial phrases have no subjects, and contain verbs which are in the –ing form. causing leading to contributing to resulting in Water levels will change, changes in living patterns. (1)

52. resulting from following from Living patterns will change, changes in water levels. (2)

53. More examples: Massive shifts in population will result from all of these environmental changes. The Greenhouse Effect will cause dramatic changes in the way we live. All of these environment will change; hence, population will shift massively. Because of all the environmental changes, the population will shift massively. In the way we live will change dramatically, resulting from the Greenhouse Effect. Dramatic changes in the way we live will follow from the Greenhouse Effect.

54. Web links http://www.mhhe.com/mayfieldpub/tsw/esl-link.htm (common writing problems) http://www.mhhe.com/mayfieldpub/tsw/esl-link.htm http://lbarker.orconhosting.net.nz/words.html (words that are often confused) http://lbarker.orconhosting.net.nz/words.html http://www.englishdaily626.com/c-mistakes.php (common mistakes) http://www.englishdaily626.com/c-mistakes.php