1. How we know what we know: ‘Lies, damn lies and statistics’ All research findings do not have the same valueAll research findings do not have the same value Need to critically assessNeed to critically assessinformation

2. Gangs in schools Youngsters drawn to peer groups for sense of belonging, purpose, protectionYoungsters drawn to peer groups for sense of belonging, purpose, protection Schoolboys operating gangs in and around schools especially extortion, theft, rapeSchoolboys operating gangs in and around schools especially extortion, theft, rape Boys in some cases are part of larger criminal gangsBoys in some cases are part of larger criminal gangs (Safe Schools Initiative, Min of Nat Security, 2008) (Safe Schools Initiative, Min of Nat Security, 2008)

3. Causes and facilitators 1. ‘Nature vs. Nurture’ Since 1970s, more integrated framework (deWaal,1999)Since 1970s, more integrated framework (deWaal,1999) Genetic studies on aggression highlight relative influences of genes & environment (e.g. Aseneault et al., 2003)Genetic studies on aggression highlight relative influences of genes & environment (e.g. Aseneault et al., 2003) Environmental & genetic risk interact (Caspi et al., 2002, Fox et al., 2005, Jaffee et al,. 2007)Environmental & genetic risk interact (Caspi et al., 2002, Fox et al., 2005, Jaffee et al,. 2007)

4. Causes and facilitators 2. Aggression as adaptive 1.Traditionally seen as maladaptive e.g. peer disapproval 2.Since late 1990s adaptive role recognized. Evolutionary psychology suggests selection designed to solve problems in specific contexts 3.Adaptive function varies with age, context (Guerra, 2008)

5. Causes and facilitators3. Possible adaptive functions: Co-opting resources of othersCo-opting resources of others Defending against attackDefending against attack Deterring rivals from future aggressionDeterring rivals from future aggression Negotiating status and powerNegotiating status and power Inflicting costs on same-sex rivalsInflicting costs on same-sex rivals

7. Causes and facilitators 4. Aggression can result in : Status and honour (e.g. violent gangs)Status and honour (e.g. violent gangs) Popularity and admiration within peer groupPopularity and admiration within peer group Material goods, protection, power, deterrenceMaterial goods, protection, power, deterrence (Fagan & Wilkinson, 1998; Guerra, 1998)

8. Causes and facilitators 5. Causes and facilitators 5. Aggression - a ‘multiply determined behaviour Individual factors –Personality –Temperament –Neuropsychological functioning –Biological predispositions

9. Causes and facilitators 6. Contextual factors –Parenting practices –Family socialization –Peer influences –School environment –Community disadvantage (Eron, 1987)

10. Risk factors in Jamaica I Study of aggression-related factors in Primary schools II Case control study of aggressive and prosocial boys III Long term follow-up of aggressive & prosocial boys

11. I Study of aggression related factors in Primary schools 30 Primary level urban schools - interviews –30 Principals –185 Selected teachers –1416 grade 5 children –Extensive Observations School plantSchool plant Classroom behaviorClassroom behavior Playground behaviorPlayground behavior (Meeks Gardner, Powell, Grantham-McGregor, 2001)

12. Aggression Level Directly related to: Violence in communityViolence in community Children seen dead bodiesChildren seen dead bodies Corporal punishments at schoolCorporal punishments at school

13. Aggression Level Negatively related to: Praise for good workPraise for good work Displaying children’s workDisplaying children’s work Giving more homeworkGiving more homework

14. II Case control study of aggressive and prosocial boys Sample 101 aggressive boys101 aggressive boys –from grades 5 & 6 101 prosocial boys101 prosocial boys –matched by grade (Meeks Gardner, Powell, Grantham-McGregor, 2001; 2007)

15. Measurements Boys: - Questionnaires - School achievement tests - School achievement tests - Verbal IQ (PPVT) - Verbal IQ (PPVT) - Anthropometry - Observations Parents: - Questionnaires - Child behaviour (Rutter) Teacher:- Child behaviour (Rutter)

16. Child characteristics Spelling/ readingSpelling/ reading HyperactivityHyperactivity R 2 =0.10 Environment variables Exposure to violence Parent’s commitment to education Prays/ church Parents’ marital status Beatings (hand) Beatings (belt) R 2 =0.28 Independent variables different between the groups

17. III Follow-up of aggressive & prosocial cohorts Boys aggressive at age 11 years continued to be more violent at age 17 yearsBoys aggressive at age 11 years continued to be more violent at age 17 years Poorer school achievementPoorer school achievement Greater school drop-outGreater school drop-out (Meeks Gardner et al, 2004)

18. Impacts and Outcomes Within adaptive framework, aggression and violence can have positive benefits.Within adaptive framework, aggression and violence can have positive benefits. May resist interventions to reduce this behaviourMay resist interventions to reduce this behaviour Strategy to change adaptive value neededStrategy to change adaptive value needed

19. What can be done? Comprehensive, multi-faceted approach required 1.Policy-related 2.Interventions and treatments 3.Research and monitoring