1. Language Politics in Canada Douglas Brown St Francis Xavier University March 2007

2. Language Politics in Canada Canada pre and post 1960 Demographics of Language Inequality Dealing with Linguistic Insecurity Language as Driver of Nationalism and of Constitutional Turmoil Current Demographics

3. Key Dates….pre 1960 1763 France cedes North American territories to Britain 1774 Quebec Act guarantees French language and RC religion 1840 United Province of Canada – power- sharing between French and English 1867 Confederation – Quebec as home to French majority

4. Keeping the Lid On: 1867-1960 Federal union is manageable Federal union is manageable Elite accommodation works Elite accommodation works Social and institutional segregation of French and English Social and institutional segregation of French and English Conservative, anti-statist French Canadian society Conservative, anti-statist French Canadian society Church is key institution in French Canada Church is key institution in French Canada Demographic balance maintained (French are nearly constant 30 percent share) Demographic balance maintained (French are nearly constant 30 percent share)

5. Boiling Over: The Quiet Revolution in Quebec Rejection of old values and identity (rural, Catholic, ethnic purity) Post-colonial ideology plays a role Rise of new Francophone middle class Significant worry over future of French language Slow transformation to civic nationalism The special role of the Quebec state

6. Those B and B Commission numbers Average annual incomes, 1961 census: British origin $ 5918 British origin $ 5918 Eng only 6049 Bilingual (44%) 5929 French origin 3880 French origin 3880 French only 3107 Bilingual (52%) 4523

7. The Transformation to Civic Nationalism ? Declining emphasis on “Québécois de souche” – original ethnic population Language as key remaining focus of identity Embracing a multi-ethnic identity, but “in French” French-speaking integration as counterpart to English-speaking integration outside Quebec

8. Versions of the Nationalist Project in Quebec Special StatusSpecial Status Deux-Nations (“equal to equal”)Deux-Nations (“equal to equal”) Sovereignty-association (partial independence?)Sovereignty-association (partial independence?) Distinct societyDistinct society Secession from the federation (independence)Secession from the federation (independence)

9. Legislating language, 1972 onwards Trying to achieve: Linguistic security Linguistic security Economic and social equality Economic and social equality “Bill 101”– Charter of the French Language -- first passed 1977, amended since Language of work, and an end to Francophone exploitation in Quebec Reinforcing the French “face” of Quebec Dealing with the immigrant challenge in schools

10. The Federation Responds Defacto special status: More tax room More tax room Opting out of national programs Opting out of national programs Bilateral deals on immigration, culture, etc. Bilateral deals on immigration, culture, etc. Reform of the federal public service Federal Official Languages Act, also New Brunswick “French power” in Ottawa Closer Ties to Francophone World

11. Limits to Accommodation Resistance and backlash to federal bilingualism outside Quebec Resistance to special status – ultimate expression in rejection of Meech Lake Accord French-English tensions: Concern for English rights in Quebec Concern for English rights in Quebec Perceived federal favouritism to Quebec Perceived federal favouritism to Quebec Contested sign laws Contested sign laws Battles for provincial or municipal services in French outside Quebec Battles for provincial or municipal services in French outside Quebec

12. Stéphan Dion argument, 1992 Linguistic insecurity explains a lot of Quebec nationalism and Quebec’s demands within the federation Episodes of rejection of French status causes upward spikes in support for sovereignty Key flash points: Gens de l’air controversy, 1976 Gens de l’air controversy, 1976 Supreme Court judgement on Bill 101, 1988 Supreme Court judgement on Bill 101, 1988 Rejection of Meech Lake Accord, 1990 Rejection of Meech Lake Accord, 1990

13. Current State of Affairs Relative stability in federal-provincial relations Relative linguistic peace in Quebec and elsewhere Slow effect of immersion movement in English- speaking community Federalists in power in Quebec -- Liberals under Charest Bloc québécois still a force in Ottawa Parti québécois still Official Opposition in Quebec

14. Current Demographics French-English income levels in Quebec basically the same French proportion of population in Quebec slowly rising (now 84%) Bilingualism and trilingualism in Quebec at high levels (Fr =36%, Eng =66%, other = 52%; other trilingual = 49%) French proportion of population in Canada slowly declining (now 23%)