1. Chapter 2.1 Game Design

2. 2 Overview Folk games [Costikyan] “Traditional” games, cultural origins Examples: Tic-Tac-Toe (Naughts and Crosses) Chess Go Backgammon Poker

3. 3 Overview There is no one “right” way to design There are many successful approaches Specific requirements and constraints of each project and team determine what works and what does not. This introduction is but a scratch

4. 4 The Language of Games Game development – a young industry Standards are still being formulated Theory Practice Terminology

5. 5 The Language of Games Debate continues over high-level views Lack of standard (concrete) definitions Game Play High-level concepts tricky to articulate

6. 6 The Language of Games Workplace differences low-level Working terminology Example “actors” instead of “agents” “geo” instead of “model” Workflow – how things get done Individual responsibilities Processes under which work is performed

7. 7 The Language of Games Why do we play? Not a designer’s problem What is the nature of games? Not a designer’s problem How is a game formed of parts? A designer’s problem

8. 8 Aesthetics and Frame Aesthetics Emotional responses during play Naïve practical approach, not classical Frame The border of a game’s context Inside the frame is in the game Outside the frame is real life

9. 9 Approaching Design Computer games are an art form Game design practices can be taught Game design is a technical discipline like music, film, poetry The art of making dynamic models

10. 10 Approaching Design Mental/Cognitive Concepts Beliefs Maps Examples: Locations Relationships Mathematical Equations Formulas Algorithms A model represents something

11. 11 Approaching Design Abstract model Conceptual and idealized A tool for investigating specific questions Simplifies thinking to help understand problems May include assumptions thought to be false Abstract game One rule The piece is moved to the open square

12. 12 A Player-Game Model A model of the player – game relationship

13. 13 A Player-Game Model Mechanics Things the player does Interface Communication between player and game System Underlying structure and behavior

14. 14 Play Mechanics Gameplay Feelings of playing a particular game Activities engaged in a particular game (Play/game) Mechanics Specific to game activities “What the player does”

15. 15 Seven Stages of Action Execution Intention to act Sequence of action Execution of action sequence Evaluation Evaluating interpretations Interpreting perceptions Perceiving states

16. 16 Seven Stages of Action A goal is formed Models the desired state The desired result of an action Examples: Have a glass of water in hand Capture a queen Taste ice cream

17. 17 Seven Stages of Action Goals turned into intentions to act Specific statements of what is to be done

18. 18 Seven Stages of Action Intentions put into an action sequence The order internal commands will be performed

19. 19 Seven Stages of Action The action sequence is executed The player manipulates control variables

20. 20 Seven Stages of Action The state of the game is perceived State variables are revealed via the interface

21. 21 Seven Stages of Action Player interprets their perceptions Interpretations based upon a model of the system

22. 22 Seven Stages of Action Player evaluates the interpretations Current states are compared with intentions and goals

23. 23 Seven Stages of Action Donald Norman’s approximate model Actions not often in discrete stages Not all actions progress through all stages

24. 24 Seven Stages of Action Scales to… …an individual mechanic A “primary element” Examples: Move Shoot Talk …an entire game A generalized model of interaction

25. 25 Designer and Player Models Systems are built from designer mental models Design models may only anticipate player goals

26. 26 Designer and Player Models Players build mental models from mechanics Based upon interactions with the system image The reality of the system in operation Not from direct communication with designers Player and designer models can differ significantly

27. 27 Core Mechanics Typical patterns of action Fundamental mechanics cycled repeatedly Examples: Action shooters – run, shoot, and explore Strategy game – explore, expand, exploit, exterminate referred to as the “four X’s”

28. 28 Premise The metaphors of action and setting Directs the player experience Provides a context in which mechanics fit Players map game states to the premise

29. 29 Premise Story is the typical example of premise Time Place Characters Relationships Motivations Etc.

30. 30 Premise Premise may also be abstract Tetris operates under a metaphor The metaphor: arranging colored shapes Encompasses all game elements Player discussions use the language of the premise

31. 31 Premise Games are models Activities being modeled form premise Actions may appear similar in model Usually are fundamentally quite different Sports games are good examples Playing video games isn’t like playing the sport

32. 32 Premise Goes beyond setting and tone Alters the players mental model Basis of player understanding and strategy

33. 33 Premise Possible Capable of happening in the real world Plausible Possible within the unique world of premise “Makes sense” within the game’s premise Consistent with the premise as understood

34. 34 Choice and Outcome Choice A question asked of the player Outcome The end result of a given choice Possibility space Represents the set of possible events A “landscape” of choice and outcome

35. 35 Choice and Outcome Consequence or Weight The significance of an outcome Greater consequences alter the course of the game more significantly Choices are balanced first by consequence

36. 36 Choice and Outcome Well-designed choice Often desirable and undesirable effects Should relate to player goals Balanced against neighboring choices Too much weight to every choice is melodrama Orthogonal choices – distinct from others Not just “shades of grey”

37. 37 Qualities of Choice Terms in which to discuss choices Hollow – lacking consequence Obvious – leaves no choice to be made Uninformed – arbitrary decision Dramatic – strongly connects to feelings Weighted – good and bad in every choice Immediate – effects are immediate Long-term – effects over extended period Orthogonal – choices distinct from each other

38. 38 Goals and Objectives Objectives Designed tasks players must perform Rigid requirements – formal Goals An intentional outcome Notions that direct player action Scales all levels of motivation From selecting particular strategies… …to basic motor actions (e.g. pressing a button)

39. 39 Goals and Objectives Objectives and goals can differ Players goals reflect their understanding of the game Designers must consider how the game communicates with players Affordances – the apparent ways something can be used

40. 40 Resources Things used by agents to reach goals To be meaningful, they must be… Useful – provide some value Limited – in total or rate of supply

41. 41 Economies Systems of supply, distribution, consumption Questions regarding game economies: What resources exist? How and when will resources be used? How and when will resources be supplied? What are their limits?

42. 42 Player Strategy People usually reason with commonsense A view of linear causation – cause and effect Complex systems do not behave linearly Players need information to support linear strategy

43. 43 User Interface Interface Game controls Presentation, and feedback Input Player to game Output Game to player

44. 44 User Interface Elements Contains both hardware, software, and performance elements. Hardware such as game pads and touchscreens Software such as engines Performance such as pressing a button

45. 45 Interface – main display Typical perspectives: First-person Over-the-shoulder (OTS) Overhead (top-down) Side Isometric

46. 46 Interface - audio General categories of audio Music A powerful tool for establishing mood and theme Sound effects Dialog

47. 47 Interface Controls Physical input devices Control inputs User manipulations of the controls They are not strategies Example: a sequence of buttons to perform a combo Strategies involve deciding when to perform, and which to perform

48. 48 Interface Keymaps and Control tables/diagrams Show input, action, and context

49. 49 Interface Front-end In application software The visible portion of the application In games GUI elements not displayed during play

50. 50 Interface HUD (Head-Up Display) Displays during play Shows and other information difficult to present directly in the game environment Examples Scores Resource levels Mini Map Chat Alerts Level

51. 51 Interface Mapping An understood relationship between two things Especially the relationship of a model to its subject Examples

52. 52 HCI and Cognitive Ergonomics HCI – Human-Computer Interaction Study of… Communication between users and computers How people design, build, and use interfaces Better support for cooperative work Cognitive Ergonomics Analyzes the cognitive representations and processes involved with performing tasks

53. 53 Design of Everyday Things Norman’s five principles of design Visibility Making the parts visible Mappings Understandable relationships between controls and actions Affordances The perceived uses of an object Constraints Prevent the user from doing things they shouldn’t Feedback Reporting what has been done and accomplished

54. 54 Systems Emergent complexity Behaviors that cannot be predicted simply from the rules of a system Emergence Coined by George Henry Lewes in 1873 See: John Conway’s Game of Life

55. 55 Genres Genre – a category describing generalities of conventions, style, and content

56. 56 Genres Action Adventure Arcade Casual Education Fighting First-person shooter Platform Racing Rhythm Role-Playing (RPG) Simulation Sports Strategy Puzzle Traditional

57. 57 Audiences Why We Play Games – Nicole Lazzaro Internal experience Enjoyment from visceral activities Hard fun Challenge of strategy and problem solving Easy fun Intrigue and curiosity – exploration and adventure Social experience Stimulating social faculties – competition, teamwork, bonding, and recognition

58. 58 Creativity Ability to create Ability to produce an idea, action, or object considered new and valuable

59. 59 Creativity Classic approach - Graham Wallace Preparation Background research and comprehension Incubation Mulling things over Insight Sudden illumination – Eureka! Evaluation Validating revealed insights Elaboration Transforming the idea into substance

60. 60 Creativity Brainstorming Generating ideas without discrimination Evaluation after elaboration Can be unfocused

61. 61 Creativity Six Thinking Hats White Hat – neutral and objective Red Hat – intuition, gut reaction Black Hat – gloomy, naysayer Yellow Hat – Pollyannaish, optimistic Green Hat – growth and creativity Blue Hat – process and control Symbolize perspective worn by people involved in the creative endeavor Edward de Bono

62. 62 Inspiration Board games Spatial relationships Card games Resource management Paper RPGs Dynamic narratives Books Fantasy and agency Sports Team competition Film Continuity techniques Television Serialized stories Music Temporal systems Martial arts Discipline in action Children Invention

63. 63 Psychology Working Memory Holds roughly 7 ± 2 items at one time while other cognitive operations on them

64. 64 Psychology Attention Method of enhancing perceptions relative to other stimuli in the same environment How we focus on important things Limited capacity

65. 65 Psychology Classical conditioning Reaction to stimulus is conditioned by pairing with another stimulus that elicits the desired response naturally

66. 66 Psychology Unconditioned stimulus – Meat Unconditioned response – Salivation over meat Conditioned stimulus – Tone Conditioned response – Salivation over tone

67. 67 Psychology Operant conditioning Learning by encouraging or discouraging Operant A response; the action in question Example: pressing a button Reinforcement contingency Consistent relationship between the operant and a result in the environment

68. 68 Psychology Reinforcers Increase the probability an action will be repeated Positive reinforcement Positive stimulus that reinforces the behavior Ex. Use umbrella and be dry Negative reinforcement The removal or prevention of a negative stimulus Ex. Use umbrella and keep from getting wet Punishment Reduces the likelihood of a behavior with a stimulus Ex. Being burned by a hot stove