1. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Functions Additional Topics

2. Topics to be Discussed Default Parameters Function Signatures Function Name Overloading Inline Functions Template Functions Variable number of parameters Testing Why use functions? Again! Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill

3. Default parameters Something new in C++ is default arguments There is a feature that you can initialize an argument that was omitted from the call Effectively this gives a function that may have variable number of parameters

4. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Example: Declaration: –int fn(int a = 5)... Call –fn(5) and fn() are exactly the same Call –fn(2) would be different A parameter list must be supplied –Sometimes it can be empty

5. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Rules and Regulations There may be multiple default arguments int fn(double x = 45.3, int i = 5, int j=10) –May be called with 0, 1, 2, 3 arguments An omitted argument must be last –fn(2.4,5) supplies x and i lets j become 10 –fn(3.2,,4) is not legal

6. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill More You may mix defaulted and non- defaulted parameters, but all the defaults must be to right of all the others –int fn(float a, int b, int c = 5, char d = 'a') The allowable types of default parameters includes anything suitable for assignment If you use a prototype, it must appear there and not in header

7. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Prototypes and headers The rules of C++ indicate that we must declare something before we use it For functions this can be accomplished in two ways: –Put the entire function definition in the code before the call –Code a function prototype first and the function later Former means that we have upside down programs –The first thing to be executed is the last thing to be seen and the first thing seen can call nothing The latter mechanism is useful for organizing our programs in top down ways Requires a prototype and a header

8. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Prototypes A function prototype is (mostly) the function header plus a semicolon instead of the function body The purpose of the prototype is to declare it without defining it The C or C++ compiler will not complain: –If he sees a prototype without a definition –If he sees multiple prototypes for the same function –However, if there is a prototype without definition then the linker gets unhappy

9. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill More A prototype gives just enough information for the function to be called, but does not define what the function does –The prototype can leave out the parameter names, whereas a header can not –No calling function can access the names so why bother to specify them, except for documentation? The prototype can be local to a function –Though is not usually done –Only that function can then access it

10. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Two main uses of prototypes Documentation –After the includes, provide a prototype for each function –Typically one line per function –Followed by the main function –Reader can view the function declaration along with the code that references them –The prototypes can be in any order, even alphabetical –You can compile, even without all of the function definitions, but not execute Headers and libraries –A header file, usually includes only the prototypes –This way we can call it without having to recompile the function itself –The linker finds the object (machine language) for the function –Hence the function can be used by someone, yet still maintain the privacy and efficiency of separately compiled and hidden source code

11. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill C function names A C function was recognized by precisely one thing: its function name –A variable and a function may have the same name C distinguishes by the absence of parentheses following the variable –Only one named function X may be available

12. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Function signatures New in C++ C++ looks at the entire call of a function: –Function name –Types of the parameters to a function –Result type is not considered Two functions are different if their signatures are different –Which could mean their names are the same –This will come in very handy with classes

13. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Examples Thus there is no problem with defining the following: –int i,j; double x,y; –int add(int a, int b); –double add(double a, double b); i = add(i,j) is the first x = add(x,y) is the second x = add(i,x) is a problem(although not an error) for there is no really obvious way to handle it

14. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Commentary This will also enable operator overloading, which we will investigate fully when we deal with classes Why is the return value type is not significant? –That type cannot be determined from the call –The return value could be ignored or cast into another type How does casting affect this mechanism

15. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Casting The function call matching mechanism of C++ is much more complicated than previous languages –It actually searches through possibilities While we try to resolve the duplicates, there are a number of promotions that we can apply to make the signature match These include widening and conversion The best policy is always an exact match

16. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Widening Sometimes we can convert an integer by widening, that is converting from one type to a similar type without loss of information Examples: –char to int –float to double –short to int These are nice since we never lose any information

17. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Conversions: We can change from one type to another type if the target type is stronger The hierarchy of types is from weakest to strongest: –char –int –unsigned –long –unsigned long –float –double –long double

18. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Promotions The standard promotions are to –Attempt widening –Attempt strengthening weaker to stronger Constructors form another possibility that will be dealt with later –A constructor creates an object –Also known as a user defined conversion

19. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Ambiguous Match Most others languages offer a clean hit or clean miss for function identification C++ does not Instead C++ searches for the best function match We can end at an ambiguous match and this gives an error Consider this example:

20. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Example int fn(int a, double b); int fn(double a, int b); x = fn(2, 5); This is an ambiguous match –The first one can be matched by converting the 5 –The second one by converting the 2 Thus they are equally far from the call C++ will give an error –The programmer can choose by doing a manual cast: x=fn(double(2),5);

21. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Here are the rules: Use an exact match if found Try widening Try conversions Try user defined conversions (constructors) –If there are two matches that are equally far from the current, then the call is ruled ambiguous and a syntax error is announced: Generally the programmer should code an exact match

22. Variable numbers of parameters The C stream input/output system had a couple of functions that look really strange: printf(“Answers: %d, %lf\n”,i, x); The funny part is that this always required an initial string After that it could have as many parameters as needed Each parameter replaced a format descriptor Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill

23. Types The problem with this approach was that there was no way to verify type The %d stated that an integer was expected –There was no way to verify this It is a type-insecure system This system will be covered later but what is of interest is how to declare an unknown number of parameters Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill

24. The Ellipsis The function header contains three dots to signify that we do not know how many parameter follow Thus the printf header looks like this: int printf(char * f, …); The comma before the ellipsis is optional Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill

25. Problems Just because we have variable number of parameters does mean that we can use them How are they referenced in the code? –There are no names –There are no types –There is not even a count of how many there are Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill

26. Macros There are several macros that allow us to handle these A macro is something done by the preprocessor –We will consider preprocessor macros later In order to enable these we need the include of stdarg.h All of the items start with va_ –Variable Args Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill

27. va_ Items va_list – a type to hold the progress va_start – function to initialize the va_list item –Parms: the va_list item and named parameter va_args – function to obtain the next argument –Parms: the va_list item and type to be returned va_end – stop the iteration through the arguments Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill

28. Example 1 Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill int sum1(int count,...){ int res = 0; va_list arg_ptr; int args = 0; va_start(arg_ptr,count); while(args++ < count){ res += va_arg(arg_ptr,int); } va_end(arg_ptr); return res; } int i = sum1(4,2,3,4,5);

29. Example 2 Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill int sum2(int first...){ int res = first,arg; va_list arg_ptr; va_start(arg_ptr,first); while(true){ arg = va_arg(arg_ptr,int); if(arg<0) break; res += arg; } va_end(arg_ptr); return res; } b = sum2(1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,-1);

30. Notes There must be some way to know when to stop looking for parameters printf counts directives sum1 used the first parameter as a count sum2 kept going until a negative was found Any technique based on the function logic works Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill

31. Ellipsis vs. Defaults Default parameters –Give us a range of parameters to be given –Specifies the types and what values to supply if left out –There is a maximum number of parameters, specified in header Ellipsis –No types are given –No maximum Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill

32. A problem Sometimes we end up with a function that is very short because –Stepwise refinement gave us a shorter function than we thought –It is used frequently in the program The function call overhead could be larger than the work done in the function For such functions it is less efficient

33. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Example Swap Take two values and exchange them: void swap(int & a, int & b){ int temp = a; a = b; b = temp; } There are three statements to call one or two to return but only three in the function

34. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Inline functions A function may be preceded by the keyword inline This causes the function to be macro expanded rather than called in the code Handy for very short functions, where the overhead of a function call may be too large compared to the execution of the function This is handier with classes, but the swap function makes a nice candidate

35. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Example Swap made an inline function: inline void swap(int & a, int & b){ int temp = a; a = b; b = temp; }

36. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Tradeoffs In computer science we have a common space speed tradeoff We can usually make something smaller but at the cost of making it slower or faster but at the cost of making it larger This happens with inline as well An inline function that is called several times will be faster but larger than the non-inline version

37. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Function templates A function can be templatized (parameterized by type) as well This is clear from classes, but they can be independent of classes This is covered in a subsequent class but here is an example of swap

38. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Template Example Take two values of any type and exchange them: template void swap(TYPE & a,TYPE & b){ TYPE temp = a; a = b; b = temp; }

39. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Notes This is not a normal function, but a template (pattern) for a function For every call of the function swap the compiler examines the parameter types If this combination has not been seen it produces a new function using this pattern

40. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Consider the calls Declarations: int i,j,k; double d,e; float f,g; Calls: swap(i,j); //generate int swap swap(d,e); //gen double swap swap(k,j); //use first swap(f,g); //gen float swap

41. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill More on Templates Also called generics –Very few languages have generics Client code can not distinguish from overloaded function names and template functions The runtime effect is exactly the same as if we wrote several versions of the function

42. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Function search Figuring out which function will actually receive the call: –First look for an exact match among non- template functions: –Next look for a function template that if generated with type z could produce an exact match: –The generated function must match exactly Not even trivial conversions will be applied (ie a value parameter must match in type exactly, widening etc is not applied) –Next look for conversions that allow a non template function to work

43. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Another Problem C++ and Java allow function name overloading but our tools predate their use In particular the linker agrees with C that a function name alone determines the function to use Thus C++ uses a process called name mangling to make the names unique

44. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Name Mangling The C++ compiler generates a unique name for each function This name contains the function name and all the parameters types in order This may only be seen in the linker output Most debuggers handle this by giving the original name

45. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Testing strategies Functions allow two new testing approaches: –Bottom up –Top down Besides that we have another categorization of testing: –Black box –White box

46. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Bottom Up Testing Each function has its own specifications These can be tested independently of the rest of the program Write a driver program that calls the function –Multiple calls –Each result is checked for correctness –Still use statement / path testing

47. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Moving up When the bottom functions are tested then move up a level to those functions that call them When the main program is tested then you are done It is also a smart thing to retain the driver programs for tests on the functions when they change This is important in XP

48. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill XP Not Windows XP but eXtreme Programming One of the precepts of XP is individualized testing Each object type has its own automated driver that tests the class in all reasonable ways These drivers are maintained so that when any change is made in the class the test is performed This is a variation of Bottom Up testing

49. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Top Down Testing You may test the main function before the lower functions are coded This allows a program to be coded by different programmers Create stub functions The stub function emulates the real function, which may not yet be done Allows the main to be tested whenever it its ready

50. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Stub Functions These are created with one of several approaches: Have it respond to fixed test data –A function that always returns 2.5 because that is what is should on this set of test data Have it display its parameter values and ask a person for the right answer Only way to test if the sub-functions are incomplete

51. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Black Box Testing No knowledge of the interior structure of a program or function This kind of test data usually comes from the people who will actually use the program It may be made up in advance before the coding even starts Another one of the precepts of XP

52. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill White Box Testing Test data provided by someone with knowledge of the code Every statement and every path testing are examples The programmer has a good idea what kind of data may cause the function to abort or return wrong results

53. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Advantages of functions Economy Readability Maximum efficiency of stepwise refinement Code reuse Code localization

54. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Economy Instead of making two or more copies of the same code we can just code it once Parameters allow us to take two pieces of code which are almost the same and make into one parameterized function For example the change program

55. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Recall the change program Given purchase price, tendered amount find the number of twenties, tens, etc. There was a loop for twenties, tens, and every other denomination of coin or bill However all the loops were the same with small changes:

56. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Some of the code int twenties = 0; while(change > 20) { twenties++; change -= 20; } if(twenties > 0) cout << “Give the customer “ <<twenties << “twenties.”; int tens = 0; while(change > 10) { tens++; change -= 10; } if(tens > 0) cout << “Give the customer “ <<tens << “tens.”;

57. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Improvements We can generalize this code by changing three things: –twenties or tens –20 or 10 –“twenties” or “tens” –change stays the same Lets look again

58. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Color Coded Similarities int twenties = 0; while(change > 20) { twenties++; change -= 20; } if(twenties > 0) cout << “Give the customer “ << twenties << “twenties.”; int tens = 0; while(change > 10) { tens++; change -= 10; } if(tens > 0) cout << “Give the customer “ << tens << “tens.”;

59. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Solution Make the code a parameterized function This is called repeatedly from the main program

60. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill The Economized Code void changer(double & change, int size, AnsiString label){ int count = 0; while(change > size) { count++; change -= size; } if(count > 0) cout << “Give the customer “ << count << label.c_str(); }... changer(change, 20, ” twenties”); changer(change, 10, ” tens”); changer(change, 5, ” fives”); changer(change, 1, ” ones”);

61. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Readability When we read the main program we no longer have to wade through each version of the change loop –We can just notice that we call changer Our minds allow us to conceptualize items –We think of making change for one denomination not as a series of steps but as one abstract action –We we can view the function as a single item without worrying how we do it. –Keeps the number of chunks we are currently concerned with lower –We think about what not how

62. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Readability rule A function should not be longer than a page –This used to be a page of printed output –Today is is one screen in the editor If it is longer make it into two or more functions Threat –From now on you had better use functions

63. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Maximum Efficiency of Stepwise Refinement Make our English statements into function names The main program or event handler takes one pass All the separate functions are then smaller We do not care if any of these are reusable What we want is easy to design

64. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Code reuse A future program may require one of our functions: –factorial –change Do not write it again but copy it from somewhere else The includes bring in groups of functions that we do not want to write again Established programming shops have libraries of functions that they have found to be useful Do not re-invent the wheel

65. Copyright © 2006-2012 - Curt Hill Code Localization Makes modifications somewhat easier Reduces coupling Often the case that only a single function will touch a file When the file format is changed only this routine needs changing –No need to scan whole program looking for references to the file