1. Independent Study Atmospheric Effects on Aircraft Gas Turbine Life Humidity Section Revised May 23, 2011 Kevin Roberg

2. Contents: Introduction Atmospheric Composition Atmospheric Structure Standard Model of the Atmosphere Sample Altitude Model Result Measures of Humidity Humidity Relationships Virtual Temperature Water Vapor Distribution References

3. It is said in New England “Don’t like the weather? Wait a minute, it will change.” This is in fact true in the majority of locations on earth. It is also true that change can be found in any direction, including up. This study examines the effect of atmospheric conditions on the life of aircraft gas turbines. It is impractical, if not impossible, to model the instantaneous structure of the atmosphere during every flight in the life of an engine. Fortunately, it is possible to describe an average atmosphere which, over the course of many flights and a long period of time, closely resembles the environment experienced in operation. The relationships developed in this study describe average conditions. They will rarely, if ever, correctly describe instantaneous conditions exactly. Where there structure of the atmosphere can consistently differ from the average, such as a ground level inversion present each morning or evening, these effects are described.

4. SymbolNameMolecular WeightVolume Fraction Fractional Molecular Weight N2N2 Nitrogen28.0178.08 21.870208 O2O2 Oxygen3220.95 6.704 ArArgon39.950.93 0.371535 NeNeon20.180.0018 0.0003632 HeHelium40.0005 0.00002 H2H2 Hydrogen2.020.00005 1.01E-06 XeXenon131.30.000009 1.182E-05 CO 2 Carbon dioxide44.010.035 0.0154035 CH 4 Methane16.040.00017 2.727E-05 N2ON2ONitrous Oxide44.010.00003 1.32E-05 COCarbon Monoxide28.010.0035 0.0009804 SO 2 Sulfur Dioxide64.060.000014 8.968E-06 O3O3 Ozone480.000012 5.76E-06 NO 2 Nitrogen Dioxide46.010.000005 2.301E-06 Totals 100.0028.96 Atmospheric Composition Individual gasses may be analyzed using partial pressure (Dalton’s Law) Water Vapor may be 0-4% by Volume

5. The earth’s atmosphere is divided into distinct layers delineated by temperature extremes. Beginning at the ground where temperatures are warmest, with energy being derived from absorption of visible light. Temperature decreases with distance from the ground until the stratosphere is reached. Temperature increases through the stratopause until the level where most ultraviolet light is absorbed, the stratopause. After passing the stratopause temperature again declines through the mesosphere, until entering the troposphere where most other radiation is absorbed. The troposphere is the portion of the atmosphere nearest the ground in which nearly all clouds and weather occur. The temperature of the troposphere decreases linearly with altitude. The top portion of the troposphere is the tropopause. Within the tropopause temperature is constant. The transition from troposphere nominally occurs at a height of 11 km. The tropopause continues to a height of 20 km. Since aircraft activity using gas turbines is generally confined to altitudes well below 20 km only the tropopause and troposphere will be considered in this study. (Refer to page 13 of Stull for additional detail) Atmospheric Structure

6. Standard Model of the Atmosphere (Refer to companion paper for development of these equations) These equations are applicable for most day and night conditions but at night, in cases where the surface is cooler than that atmosphere, such as winter or marine conditions temperature may increase with altitude briefly before resuming the normal stratospheric pattern. Such a situation is termed an inversion. (Dutton)

7. Standard Model of the Atmosphere Temperature is constant within the tropopause. The tropopause begins when the troposphere reaches the tropopause temperature. Tropopause (T=216.65 K) Height (H) at which the tropopause begins Where:

8. Sample Altitude Model Result Note that the divergence between temperatures increases until reaching the 0 degree C tropopause. At this point a small artifact of the model is evident, and pressures begin to converge.

9. Measures of Humidity Relative Humidity: The amount of water in the atmosphere compared with the saturation level. 0% is not water vapor 100% is maximum water vapor for current temperature. Dew Point: The temperature at which the current amount of water in the atmosphere will reach saturation. Can be measured by chilling a mirror until dew forms Partial Pressure: The portion of atmospheric pressure contributed by water vapor Absolute Humidity: The mass of water vapor in a given volume (density). Mixing Ratio: The ratio of the mass of water to the mass of air in the atmosphere. Useful quantity for ideal gas law calculations

10. Humidity Relationships: (Equations from Stull pages 98-99)

11. Virtual Temperature: Water vapor (mol. weight 18) is less dense than dry air (mol. weight 28.96). Meteorologists account for the reduction in overall molecular weight by including a virtual temperature in ideal gas calculations: Thus humid air acts like hotter air.

12. Water Vapor Distribution: In the actual atmosphere the water vapor distribution with increasing altitude cannot be predicted using an equation. By averaging over a period of time relative humidity can be assumed to be constant up to the tropopause. At the tropopause water content is negligible. Instantaneous (Chiang, et al)Averaged (Tomasi, et al)

13. In a still atmosphere with no precipitation the amount of water, measured either by absolute humidity or mixing ratio, will remain stable throughout daily temperature variations. If local temperature drops below the dew point, dew will form. In cases when inversions occur due to a relatively cool surface, low lying fog may form though moisture remains in vapor form at higher elevations. Daily Variation:

14. References: Chiang, C.-W., & Subrata Kumar Das, J.-B. N.-x.-l. (2009, August). Simultaneous measurement of humidity and temperature in the lower troposphere over Chung-Li, Taiwan. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar- Terrestrial Physics, 71(12), 1389-1396. Dutton, J. A. (1986). The Ceaseless Wind. Mineola, New York, United States of America: Dover Publications Stull, R. B. (2000). Meteorology for Scientists and Engineers (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA, USA: Brooks/Cole. Tomasi et al, C. (2004). Mean vertical profiles of temperature and absolute humidity from a 12-year radiosounding data set at Terra Nova Bay (Antarctica). Atmosperic Research(71), 139-161.