1. Data and Computer Communications Ninth Edition by William Stallings Chapter 1 – Data Communications, Data Networks, and the Internet

2. Data Communications, Data Networks, and the Internet “The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point” - The Mathematical Theory of Communication, - The Mathematical Theory of Communication, Claude Shannon Message

3. 1.3 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS The term telecommunication means communication at a distance. The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data. Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.

4. 1.4 Figure 1.1 Five components of data communication

5. 1.5 Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

6. 1.6 1-2 NETWORKS A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.

7. 1.7 Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

8. Technological Advancement Driving Forces Technological Advancement Driving Forces Development of new servicesDevelopment of new services Advances in technologyAdvances in technology Traffic growth at a high & steady rate

9. Changes in Networking Technology * Emergence of high-speed LANs * Digital electronics * Corporate WAN needs

10. Convergence  The merger of previously distinct telephony and information technologies and markets  Layers: applicationsapplications these are seen by the end usersthese are seen by the end users enterprise servicesenterprise services services the information network supplies to support applicationsservices the information network supplies to support applications infrastructureinfrastructure communication links available to the enterprisecommunication links available to the enterprise

11. Convergence Layers

12. Benefits Efficiency better use of existing resources, and implementation of centralized capacity planning, asset and policy management Effectiveness the converged environment provides users with flexibility, rapid standardized service deployment and enhanced remote connectivity and mobility Transformation enables the enterprise-wide adoption of global standards and associated service levels Convergence benefits include:

13. Communications Model Communications Model

14. Communications Tasks Transmission system utilizationAddressing InterfacingRouting Signal generationRecovery SynchronizationMessage formatting Exchange managementSecurity Error detection and correctionNetwork management Flow control

15. The basic building block of any communications facility is the transmission line. The business manager is concerned with a facility providing the required capacity, with acceptable reliability, at minimum cost. Capacity Reliability Cost Transmission Line Transmission Lines

17. Networking VoiceData ImageVideo Advances in technology have led to greatly increased capacity and the concept of integration, allowing equipment and networks to work simultaneously.

18. 18 Network Hardware Classifying networks based on their scale:  Local Area Networks  Metropolitan Area Networks  Wide Area Networks  Wireless Networks  Home Networks  Internetworks

19. 19 Network Hardware

20. LANs and WANs Local Area Networks (LAN) Wide Area Networks (WAN) There are two broad categories of networks:

21. Wide Area Networks (WANs)  Span a large geographical area  Require the crossing of public right-of-ways  Rely in part on common carrier circuits  Typically consist of a number of interconnected switching nodes

22. Wide Area Networks Alternative technologies used include: Alternative technologies used include: Circuit switching Circuit switching Packet switching Packet switching Frame relay Frame relay Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

23. Circuit Switching  Uses a dedicated communications path  Connected sequence of physical links between nodes  Logical channel dedicated on each link  Rapid transmission  The most common example of circuit switching is the telephone network

24. 24 Network Hardware Wide Area Networks

25. Packet Switching  Data are sent out in a sequence of small chunks called packets  Packets are passed from node to node along a path leading from source to destination  Packet-switching networks are commonly used for terminal-to-terminal computer and computer-to-computer communications

26. Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)  Referred to as cell relay  Culmination of circuit switching and packet switching  Uses fixed-length packets called cells  Works in range of 10’s and 100’s of Mbps and in the Gbps range  Data rate on each channel dynamically set on demand

27. Local Area Networks (LAN)

28. Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

29. 29 Network Hardware Wireless Networks Categories of wireless networks:  System interconnection  Wireless LANs  Wireless WANs

30. 30 Network Hardware Wireless Networks  System interconnection Bluetooth a short-range wireless network. Allows system components together, digital cameras, headsets, scanners, and other devices to connect to a computer by merely being brought within range. Bluetooth a short-range wireless network. Allows system components together, digital cameras, headsets, scanners, and other devices to connect to a computer by merely being brought within range.  Wireless LANs Every computer has a radio modem and antenna with which it can communicate with other systems. Every computer has a radio modem and antenna with which it can communicate with other systems. Standard for wireless LANs: IEEE 802.11, which most systems implement and which is becoming very widespread. Standard for wireless LANs: IEEE 802.11, which most systems implement and which is becoming very widespread.

31. 31 Network Hardware Wireless Networks  Wireless WANs (cont.) Wireless LANs an operate at rates up to about 50 Mbps over distances of tens of meters. While cellular systems (Wireless WANs) operate below 1 Mbps, but the distance between the base station and the computer or telephone is measured in kilometers rather than in meters. Wireless LANs an operate at rates up to about 50 Mbps over distances of tens of meters. While cellular systems (Wireless WANs) operate below 1 Mbps, but the distance between the base station and the computer or telephone is measured in kilometers rather than in meters. High-bandwidth wide area wireless networks are also being developed (IEEE 802.16). High-bandwidth wide area wireless networks are also being developed (IEEE 802.16).

32. The Internet  Internet evolved from ARPANET  Developed to solve the dilemma of communicating across arbitrary, multiple, packet-switched network  TCP/IP provides the foundation

33. Internet Key Elements

34. Internet Architecture

35. 1.35 Figure 1.11 WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN

36. 1.36 Figure 1.12 A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs

37. 1.37 Figure 1.13 Hierarchical organization of the Internet

38. The Channel Allocation Problem To allocate a single broadcast channel among competing users, we can use: Static Channel Allocation in LANs and MANs Static Channel Allocation in LANs and MANs Dynamic Channel Allocation in LANs and MANs Dynamic Channel Allocation in LANs and MANs

39. Static Channel Allocation in LANs and MANs Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is an example of static channel allocation where the bandwidth is divided among a number of N users. When there is only a small and constant number of users, each of which has a heavy (buffered) load of traffic (e.g., carriers' switching offices), FDM is a simple and efficient allocation mechanism. However, when the number of senders is large and continuously varying or the traffic is bursty, FDM presents some problems. 1) when fewer than N users are currently interested in communicating, a large piece of valuable spectrum will be wasted. 2) when more users wants to communicate, those who have not been assigned a frequency will be denied permission. 3) even assuming that the number of users could somehow be held constant at N, each user traffic usually changes dynamically over time.

40. Multiple Access Protocols ALOHA ALOHA Carrier Sense Multiple Access Protocols Carrier Sense Multiple Access Protocols Collision-Free Protocols Collision-Free Protocols Limited-Contention Protocols Limited-Contention Protocols Wavelength Division Multiple Access Protocols Wavelength Division Multiple Access Protocols Wireless LAN Protocols Wireless LAN Protocols

41. Evolution of random-access methods

42. ALOHA network

43. Procedure for ALOHA protocol

44. Pure ALOHA The basic idea of an ALOHA system is simple: let users transmit whenever they have data to be sent. There will be collisions, of course, and the colliding frames will be damaged. If the frame was destroyed, the sender just waits a random amount of time and sends it again. How the channel know that there is a collision: - Due to the feedback property of broadcasting, a sender can always find out whether its frame was destroyed by listening to the channel, the same way other users do. With a LAN, the feedback is immediate; with a satellite, there is a delay of 270 msec before the sender knows if the transmission was successful. - If listening while transmitting is not possible for some reason, acknowledgements are needed.

45. Pure ALOHA (2) In pure ALOHA, frames are transmitted at completely arbitrary times. The throughput of ALOHA systems is maximized by having a uniform frame size rather than by allowing variable length frames.

46. Other protocols Slotted ALOHA: It assumed the time is divided into discrete intervals. The station can send at the beginning of the next time interval whenever it have data ready after the start of the current time interval. 1- Persistent CSMA: When a station has data to send, it first listens to the channel to see if anyone else is transmitting at that moment. if the channel is idle, it start transmission. If the channel is busy, the station waits until it becomes idle. When the station detects an idle channel, it transmits a frame. If a collision occurs, the station waits a random amount of time and starts all over again. Nonpersistent CSMA: same as 1-persistent except that the station does not continually sense the channel when it finds it busy, rather it waits a random period of time and then sense the channel again. When the channel becomes idle it transmit. p-Persistent CSMA: same as Nonpersistent CSMA but the station transmit with probability p when the channel is idle.

47. Persistence strategies

48. CSMA/CD procedure

49. CSMA/CA procedure

50. Wireless LAN Protocols A system of notebook computers that communicate by radio can be regarded as a wireless LAN A common configuration for a wireless LAN is an office building with base stations (also called access points) strategically placed around the building. All the base stations are wired together using copper or fiber. A simplifying assumption that all radio transmitters have some fixed range will be used follow. When a receiver is within range of two active transmitters, the resulting signal will generally be garbled and useless.

51. Wireless LAN Protocols (2) A naive approach to using a wireless LAN might be to try CSMA: just listen for other transmissions and only transmit if no one else is doing so. The trouble is, this protocol is not really appropriate because what matters is interference at the receiver, not at the sender. A wireless LAN. (a) A transmitting. (b) B transmitting.

52. Wireless LAN Protocols (3) When A is transmitting to B (previous figure part a) If C senses the medium, it will not hear A because A is out of range, and thus falsely conclude that it can transmit to B. If C does start transmitting, it will interfere at B, wiping out the frame from A. The problem of a station not being able to detect a potential competitor for the medium because the competitor is too far away is called the hidden station problem.

53. Wireless LAN Protocols (4) When B transmitting to A (previous figure part b) If C senses the medium, it will hear an ongoing transmission and falsely conclude that it may not send to D, when in fact such a transmission would cause bad reception only in the zone between B and C, where neither of the intended receivers is located. This is called the exposed station problem.

54. Hidden station problem

55. The CTS frame in CSMA/CA handshake can prevent collision from a hidden station. Note

56. Use of handshaking to prevent hidden station problem

57. Exposed station problem

58. Use of handshaking in exposed station problem

59. Wireless LAN Protocols (5) The problem is that before starting a transmission, a station really wants to know whether there is activity around the receiver. An early protocol designed for wireless LANs is MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) (Karn, 1990). The basic idea behind it is for the sender to stimulate the receiver into outputting a short frame, so stations nearby can detect this transmission and avoid transmitting for the duration of the upcoming (large) data frame.

60. Wireless LAN Protocols (6) Let us now consider how A sends a frame to B. - A starts by sending an RTS (Request To Send) frame to B. This short frame (30 bytes) contains the length of the data frame that will eventually follow. - Then B replies with a CTS (Clear to Send) frame. The CTS frame contains the data length (copied from the RTS frame). Upon receipt of the CTS frame, A begins transmission.

61. Wireless LAN Protocols (7) The MACA protocol. (a) A sending an RTS to B. (b) B responding with a CTS to A.

62. 22.62 UNICAST ROUTING PROTOCOLS UNICAST ROUTING PROTOCOLS A routing table can be either static or dynamic. A static table is one with manual entries. A dynamic table is one that is updated automatically when there is a change somewhere in the Internet. A routing protocol is a combination of rules and procedures that lets routers in the Internet inform each other of changes. Optimization Intra- and Interdomain Routing Distance Vector Routing and RIP Link State Routing and OSPF Path Vector Routing and BGP Topics discussed in this section:

63. 22.63 Figure Autonomous systems

64. 22.64 Figure 22.13 Popular routing protocols

65. 22.65 Figure 22.14 Distance vector routing tables

66. 22.66 Figure 22.15 Initialization of tables in distance vector routing

67. 22.67 In distance vector routing, each node shares its routing table with its immediate neighbors periodically and when there is a change. Note

68. 22.68 Figure Updating in distance vector routing

69. 22.69 Figure Two-node instability

70. Summary  Trends challenging data communications: traffic growthtraffic growth development of new servicesdevelopment of new services advances in technologyadvances in technology  Transmission mediums fiber opticfiber optic wirelesswireless  Network categories: WANWAN LANLAN  Internet evolved from the ARPANETevolved from the ARPANET TCP/IP foundationTCP/IP foundation