1. COT 5611 Operating Systems Design Principles Spring 2012 Dan C. Marinescu Office: HEC 304 Office hours: M-Wd 5:00-6:00 PM

2. Lecture 19 – Wednesday March 21, 2012 Reading assignment:  Chapter 9 from the on-line text Last time –  All-or-nothing and before-or after atomicity  Atomicity and processor management  Processes, threads, and address spaces  Thread coordination with a bounded buffer – the naïve approach  Thread management  Address spaces and multi-level memories  Kernel structures for the management of multiple cores/processors and threads/processes 3/21/2012 Lecture 192

3. Today Locks and before-or-after actions; hardware support for locks YIELD Conditions for thread coordination – Safety, Liveness, Bounded-Wait, Fairness Critical sections – a solution to critical section problem Deadlocks Signals Semaphores Monitors Thread coordination with a bounded buffer.  WAIT  NOTIFY  AWAIT  ADVANCE  SEQUENCE  TICKET 3/21/2012 Lecture 193

4. Locks; Before-or-After actions Locks  shared variables which acts as a flag to coordinate access to a shared data. Manipulated with two primitives  ACQUIRE  RELEASE Support implementation of before-or-after actions; only one thread can acquire the lock, the others have to wait. All threads must obey the convention regarding the locks. The two operations ACQUIRE and RELEASE must be atomic. Hardware support for implementation of locks  RSM – Read and Set Memory  CMP –Compare and Swap RSM (mem)  If mem=LOCKED then RSM returns r=LOCKED and sets mem=LOCKED  If mem=UNLOCKED the RSM returns r=LOCKED and sets mem=LOCKED 3/21/2012 Lecture 194

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7. Important facts to remember Each thread has a unique ThreadId Threads save their state on the stack. The stack pointer of a thread is stored in the thread table. To activate a thread the registers of the processor are loaded with information from the thread state. What if no thread is able to run   create a dummy thread for each processor called a processor_thread which is scheduled to run when no other thread is available  the processor_thread runs in the thread layer  the SCHEDULER runs in the processor layer We have a processor thread for each processor/core. We can use spin locks only if the two processes (the producer and the consumer) run on different CPUs; we need an active process to release a spin lock…. 3/21/2012 Lecture 197

8. Switching threads with dynamic thread creation Switching from one user thread to another requires two steps  Switch from the thread releasing the processor to the processor thread  Switch from the processor thread to the new thread which is going to have the control of the processor  The last step requires the SCHEDULER to circle through the thread_table until a thread ready to run is found The boundary between user layer threads and processor layer thread is crossed twice Example: switch from thread 0 to thread 6 using  YIELD  ENTER_PROCESSOR_LAYER  EXIT_PROCESSOR_LAYER 3/21/2012 Lecture 198

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10. The control flow when switching from one thread to another The control flow is not obvious as some of the procedures reload the stack pointer (SP) When a procedure reloads the stack pointer then the place where it transfers control when it executes a return is the procedure whose SP was saved on the stack and was reloaded before the execution of the return. ENTER_PROCESSOR_LAYER  Changes the state of the thread calling YIELD from RUNNING to RUNNABLE  Save the state of the procedure calling it, YIELD, on the stack  Loads the processors registers with the state of the processor thread, thus starting the SCHEDULER EXIT_PROCESSOR_LAYER  Saves the state of processor thread into the corresponding PROCESSOR_TABLE and loads the state of the thread selected by the SCHEDULER to run (in our example of thread 6) in the processor’s registers  Loads the SP with the values saved by the ENTER_PROCESSOR_LAYER 3/21/2012 Lecture 1910

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13. In ENTER PROCESSOR_LAYER instead of SCHEDULER() should be SP  processor_table[processor].topstack 3/21/2012 Lecture 1913

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15. Implicit assumptions for the correctness of the implementation 1. One sending and one receiving thread. Only one thread updates each shared variable. 2. Sender and receiver threads run on different processors  to allow spin locks 3. in and out are implemented as integers large enough so that they do not overflow (e.g., 64 bit integers) 4. The shared memory used for the buffer provides read/write coherence 5. The memory provides before-or-after atomicity for the shared variables in and out 6. The result of executing a statement becomes visible to all threads in program order. No compiler optimization supported 3/21/2012 Lecture 1915

16. In practice….. Threads run concurrently  Race conditions may occur  data in the buffer may be overwritten  a lock for the bounded buffer the producer acquires the lock before writing the consumer acquires the lock before reading 3/21/2012 Lecture 1916

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18. We have to avoid deadlocks If a producer thread cannot write because the buffer is full it has to release the lock to allow the consumer thread to acquire the lock to read, otherwise we have a deadlock. If a consumer thread cannot read because the there is no new item in the buffer it has to release the lock to allow the consumer thread to acquire the lock to write, otherwise we have a deadlock. 3/21/2012 Lecture 1918

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20. In practice… We have to ensure atomicity of some operations, e.g., updating the p ointers 3/21/2012 Lecture 1920

21. One more pitfall of the previous implementation of bounded buffer If in and out are long integers (64 or 128 bit) then a load requires two registers, e.,g, R1 and R2. int “00000000FFFFFFFF” L R1,int /* R1  00000000 L R2,int+1 /* R2  FFFFFFFF Race conditions could affect a load or a store of the long integer. 3/21/2012 Lecture 1921

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23. In practice the threads may run on the same system…. We cannot use spinlocks for a thread to wait until an event occurs. That’s why we have spent time on YIELD… 3/21/2012 Lecture 1923

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25. Thread coordination Critical section  code that accesses a shared resource Race conditions  two or more threads access shared data and the result depends on the order in which the threads access the shared data. Mutual exclusion  only one thread should execute a critical section at any one time. Scheduling algorithms  decide which thread to choose when multiple threads are in a RUNNABLE state  FIFO – first in first out  LIFO – last in first out  Priority scheduling  EDF – earliest deadline first Preemption  ability to stop a running activity and start another one with a higher priority. Side effects of thread coordination  Deadlock  Priority inversion  a lower priority activity is allowed to run before one with a higher priority 3/21/2012 Lecture 1925

26. Solutions to thread coordination problems must satisfy a set of conditions 1.Safety: The required condition will never be violated. 2.Liveness: The system should eventually progress irrespective of contention. 3.Freedom From Starvation: No process should be denied progress for ever. That is, every process should make progress in a finit time. 4.Bounded Wait: Every process is assured of not more than a fixed number of overtakes by other processes in the system before it makes progress. 5.Fairness: dependent on the scheduling algorithm FIFO: No process will ever overtake another process. LRU: The process which received the service least recently gets the service next. For example for the mutual exclusion problem the solution should guarantee that: Safety  the mutual exclusion property is never violated Liveness  a thread will access the shared resource in a finit time Freedom for starvation  a thread will access the shared resource in a finit time Bounded wait  a thread will access the shared resource at least after a fixed number of accesses by other threads. 3/21/2012 Lecture 1926

27. Thread coordination problems Dining philosophers Critical section 3/21/2012 Lecture 1927

28. A solution to critical section problem Applies only to two threads T i and T j with i,j ={0,1} which share  integer turn  if turn=i then it is the turn of T i to enter the critical section  boolean flag[2]  if flag[i]= TRUE then T i is ready to enter the critical section To enter the critical section thread T i  sets flag[i]= TRUE  sets turn=j If both threads want to enter then turn will end up with a value of either i or j and the corresponding thread will enter the critical section. T i enters the critical section only if either flag[j]= FALSE or turn=i The solution is correct  Mutual exclusion is guaranteed  The liveliness is ensured  The bounded-waiting is met But this solution may not work as load and store instructions can be interrupted on modern computer architectures 3/21/2012 Lecture 1928

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30. Deadlocks Happen quite often in real life and the proposed solutions are not always logical: “When two trains approach each other at a crossing, both shall come to a full stop and neither shall start up again until the other has gone.” a pearl from Kansas legislation. Deadlock jury. Deadlock legislative body. 3/21/2012 Lecture 1930

31. Examples of deadlock Traffic only in one direction. Solution  one car backs up (preempt resources and rollback). Several cars may have to be backed up. Starvation is possible. 3/21/2012 Lecture 1931

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33. Thread deadlock Deadlocks  prevent sets of concurrent threads/processes from completing their tasks. How does a deadlock occur  a set of blocked threads each holding a resource and waiting to acquire a resource held by another thread in the set. Example  locks A and B, initialized to 1 P 0 P 1 wait (A);wait(B) wait (B);wait(A) Aim  prevent or avoid deadlocks 3/21/2012 Lecture 1933

34. System model Resource types R 1, R 2,..., R m (CPU cycles, memory space, I/O devices) Each resource type R i has W i instances. Resource access model:  request  use  release 3/21/2012 Lecture 1934

35. Simultaneous conditions for deadlock Mutual exclusion: only one process at a time can use a resource. Hold and wait: a process holding at least one resource is waiting to acquire additional resources held by other processes. No preemption: a resource can be released only voluntarily by the process holding it (presumably after that process has finished). Circular wait: there exists a set {P 0, P 1, …, P 0 } of waiting processes such that P 0 is waiting for a resource that is held by P 1, P 1 is waiting for a resource that is held by P 2, …, P n–1 is waiting for a resource that is held by P n, and P 0 is waiting for a resource that is held by P 0. 3/21/2012 Lecture 1935

36. Wait for graphs 3/21/2012 Lecture 1936

37. Semaphores Abstract data structure introduced by Dijkstra to reduce complexity of threads coordination; has two components  C  count giving the status of the contention for the resource guarded by s  L  list of threads waiting for the semaphore s Counting semaphore – for an arbitrary resource count. Supports two operations: V - signal() increments the semaphore C P - wait() P decrements the semaphore C. Binary semaphore: C is either 0 or 1. 3/21/2012 Lecture 1937

38. The wait and signal operations P (s) (wait) { If s.C > 0 then s.C − −; else join s.L; } V (s) (signal) { If s.L is empty then s.C + +; else release a process from s.L; } 3/21/2012 Lecture 1938

39. Monitors Semaphores can be used incorrectly  multiple threads may be allowed to enter the critical section guarded by the semaphore  may cause deadlocks Threads may access the shared data directly without checking the semaphore. Solution  encapsulate shared data with access methods to operate on them. Monitors  an abstract data type that allows access to shared data with specific methods that guarantee mutual exclusion 3/21/2012 Lecture 1939

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41. Asynchronous events and signals Signals, or software interrupts, were originally introduced in Unix to notify a process about the occurrence of a particular event in the system. Signals are analogous to hardware I/O interrupts:  When a signal arrives, control will abruptly switch to the signal handler.  When the handler is finished and returns, control goes back to where it came from After receiving a signal, the receiver reacts to it in a well-defined manner. That is, a process can tell the system (OS) what they want to do when signal arrives:  Ignore it.  Catch it and deliver it. In this case, it must specify (register) the signal handling procedure. This procedure resides in the user space. The kernel will make a call to this procedure during the signal handling and control returns to kernel after it is done.  Kill the process (default for most signals). Examples: Event - child exit, signal - to parent. Control signal from keyboard. 3/21/2012 Lecture 1941

42. Signals state and implementation A signal has the following states:  Signal send - A process can send signal to one of its group member process (parent, sibling, children, and further descendants).  Signal delivered - Signal bit is set.  Pending signal - delivered but not yet received (action has not been taken).  Signal lost - either ignored or overwritten. Implementation: Each process has a kernel space (created by default) called signal descriptor having bits for each signal. Setting a bit is delivering the signal, and resetting the bit is to indicate that the signal is received. A signal could be blocked/ignored. This requires an additional bit for each signal. Most signals are system controlled signals. 3/21/2012 Lecture 1942

43. Back to thread coordination with a bounded buffer The bounded buffer is a shared resource thus it must be protected; the critical section is implemented with a lock. The lock must be released if the thread cannot continue. Spin lock  a lock which involves busy wait. The thread must relinquish control of the processor, it must YIELD. 3/21/2012 Lecture 1943

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46. Coordination with events and signals We introduce two events  p_room  event which signals that there is room in the buffer  p_notempty  event which signals that there is a new item in the buffer We also introduce two new system calls  WAIT(ev)  wait until the event ev occurs  NOTIFY(ev)  notify the other process that event ev has occurred. SEND will wait if the buffer is full until it is notified that the RECIVE has created more room  SEND  WAIT(p_room) and RECIVE  NOTIFY(p_room) RECEIVE will wait if there is no new item in the buffer until it is notified by SEND that a new item has been written  RECIVE  WAIT(p_notempty) and SEND  NOTIFY(p_notempty) 3/21/2012 Lecture 1946

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48. NOTIFY could be sent before the WAIT and this causes problems The NOTIFY should always be sent after the WAIT. If the sender and the receiver run on two different processor there could be a race condition for the notempty event. Tension between modularity and locks Several possible solutions: AWAIT/ADVANCE, semaphores, etc 3/21/2012 Lecture 1948

49. AWAIT - ADVANCE solution A new state, WAITING and two before-or-after actions that take a RUNNING thread into the WAITING state and back to RUNNABLE state. eventcount  variables with an integer value shared between threads and the thread manager; they are like events but have a value. A thread in the WAITING state waits for a particular value of the eventcount AWAIT(eventcount,value)  If eventcount >value  the control is returned to the thread calling AWAIT and this thread will continue execution  If eventcount ≤value  the state of the thread calling AWAIT is changed to WAITING and the thread is suspended. ADVANCE(eventcount)  increments the eventcount by one then  searches the thread_table for threads waiting for this eventcount  if it finds a thread and the eventcount exceeds the value the thread is waiting for then the state of the thread is changed to RUNNABLE 3/21/2012 Lecture 1949

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51. Implementation of AWAIT and ADVANCE 3/21/2012 Lecture 1951

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53. Solution for a single sender and single receiver 3/21/2012 Lecture 1953

54. Supporting multiple senders: the sequencer Sequencer  shared variable supporting thread sequence coordination -it allows threads to be ordered and is manipulated using two before-or-after actions. TICKET(sequencer)  returns a negative value which increases by one at each call. Two concurrent threads calling TICKET on the same sequencer will receive different values based upon the timing of the call, the one calling first will receive a smaller value. READ(sequencer)  returns the current value of the sequencer 3/21/2012 Lecture 1954

55. Multiple sender solution; only the SEND must be modified 3/21/2012 Lecture 1955

56. The modular design VM attempts to translate the virtual memory address to a physical memory address If the page is not in main memory VM generates a page-fault exception. The exception handler uses a SEND to send to an MLMM port the page number The SEND invokes ADVANCE which wakes up a thread of MLMM The MMLM invokes AWAIT on behalf of the thread interrupted due to the page fault. The AWAIT releases the processor to the SCHEDULER thread. 3/21/2012 Lecture 1956

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58. Name resolution in multi- level memories We consider pairs of layers:  Upper level of the pair  primary  Lower level of the pair  secondary The top level managed by the application which generates LOAD and STORE instructions to/from CPU registers from/to named memory locations The processor issues READs/WRITEs to named memory locations. The name goes to the primary memory device located on the same chip as the processor which searches the name space of the on-chip cache (L1 cache), the primary device with the L2 cache as secondary device. If the name is not found in L1 cache name space the Multi-Level Memory Manager (MLMM) looks at the L2 cache (off-chip cache) which becomes the primary with the main memory as secondary. If the name is not found in the L2 cache name space the MLMM looks at the main memory name space. Now the main memory is the primary device. If the name is not found in the main memory name space then the Virtual Memory Manager is invoked 3/21/2012 Lecture 1958