1. Scrubber systems are a diverse group of air pollution control devices that can be used to remove some particulates and/or gases from industrial exhaust streams. Scrubbers produce a toxic sludge, containing fly ash (mineral matter that makes up 10% - 30% of uncleaned coal) and sulfur compounds, that must be disposed of.

2. Wet scrubbers A wet scrubber is used to clean air, flue gas, or other gases of various pollutants and dust particles. Wet scrubbing works via the contact of target compounds or particulate matter with the scrubbing solution.

4. Dry scrubbers A dry or semi-dry scrubbing system, unlike the wet scrubber, does not saturate the flue gas stream that is being treated with moisture. In some cases no moisture is added; while in other only the amount of moisture that can be evaporated in the flue gas without condensing is added. Therefore, dry scrubbers do generally not have a stack steam plume or wastewater handling/disposal requirements. Dry scrubbing systems are used to remove acid gases (such as SO 2 and HCl) from combustion sources.

5. Fishing methods Dredging used for harvesting bivalve molluscs such as oysters, clams and scallops from the seabed a dredge is a metal framed basket with a bottom of connected iron rings or wire netting called a chain belly. The lower edge of the frame has a raking bar, with or without teeth, depending upon the species targeted catch is lifted off the seabed or out of the sea by the raking (or teeth) bar and passes back into the basket or bag

6. Fishing methods Bottom trawling bottom trawling is trawling (towing a trawl, which is a fishing net) along the sea floor can damage deep water coral Lophelia pertusa stirs up sediment, increasing turbidity

7. Fishing methods Drift nets not set or fixed in any way, are in fact ‘mobile’, and they are allowed to drift with the prevailing currents used on the high seas for the capture of a wide range of fish including tuna, squid and shark, and off north-east England for salmon despite a global moratorium on large-scale drift nets (nets exceeding 2.5 kms in length), introduced in 1992, problems still exist for example, drift net fisheries in the Mediterranean for swordfish and albacore tuna pose a particular threat to striped dolphins An EU-wide ban on all drift nets was introduced from January 2002 EU fishermen are, however, considering challenging the ban if ‘pingers’ are found to be successful in deterring marine mammals from entanglement and subsequent drowning in nets

8. Fishing methods Gill nets walls of netting which may be set at or below the surface, on the seabed, or at any depth inbetween. probably the oldest form of net fishing, having been in use for thousands of years true gill nets catch fish that attempt to swim through the net, which are caught if they are of a size large enough to allow the head to pass through the meshes but not the rest of the body; the fish then becomes entangled by the gills as it attempts to back out of the net the mesh size used depends upon the species and size range being targeted.

9. Fishing methods Purse seines general name given to the method of encircling a school of fish with a large wall of net net is then drawn together underneath the fish (pursed) so that they are completely surrounded one of the most aggressive methods of fishing and aims to capture large, dense shoals of mobile fish such as tuna, mackerel and herring purse seining for yellowfin tuna in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, specifically ‘dolphin-fishing’, where dolphins are deliberately encircled to trap the tuna swimming below them, is probably the most widely reported example of marine mammal by-catch

10. Fishing methods Purse seines (cont.) since the introduction of legislation to protect marine mammals in 1972 (Marine Mammal Protection Act) the number of yellowfin tuna taken in nets set deliberately on dolphins now only accounts for a very small proportion (3.3% in 1997) of tuna on the world market the most stringent ‘dolphin-friendly’ standards are those developed by the Earth Island Institute and HJ Heinz Corporation (the largest supplier of canned tuna in the world) since their introduction in 1990, dolphin deaths in this area have been reduced by 98% to about 2-3,000 reported deaths per year companies participating in the EII project represent more than 90% of the world’s canned tuna market

11. Fishing methods Long-line fishing one of the most fuel-efficient catching methods used to capture both demersal and pelagic fishes including swordfish and tuna involves setting out a length of line, possibly as much as 50-100 km long, to which short lengths of line, or snoods, carrying baited hooks are attached at intervals lines may be set vertically in the water column, or horizontally along the bottom. The size of fish and the species caught is determined by hook size and the type of bait used although a selective method of catching fish, long-lining poses one of the greatest threats to seabirds species such as albatross, petrels, shearwaters and fulmars scavenge on baited hooks, get hooked, are dragged underwater and drowned commonly the bait used is squid, the principal prey of many seabird species

12. Mining surface mining (strip mining) involves removing the material on top of a vein of coal (called overburden) to get at the coal beneath usually takes place when the overburden is less than 100m thick main benefit: efficient (60% of coal mining today) Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (1977) –overburden must be regraded to approximate original contour and the topsoil replaced –seeds are sown, increasing likelihood of revegetation underground mining method used to extract minerals when overburden is thick and surface mining is too expensive benefits: doesn’t disrupt the surface as much as surface mining (though subsidence can occur) costs: heaps of waste pile up as material is removed from the mine; health risks (black lung disease); acid mine drainage (associated with sulfur in coal)

14. AQUATIC BIOMES two zones based on light penetration photic zone zone through which light penetrates; light is sufficient for photosynthesis aphotic zone (profundal) very little light can penetrate; insufficient for photosynthesis

15. AQUATIC BIOMES benthic zone bottom of any aquatic biome substrate: made up of sand, organic and inorganic sediments contains detritus (dead organic matter)

16. AQUATIC BIOMES four freshwater zones --defined by depth and distance from shore --littoral zone: shallow, well-lit, close to shore; rooted and floating plants flourish --limnetic zone: well-lit, open surface water, farther from shore, extending to depth penetrated by light; occupied by phytoplankton, zooplankton, higher animals; produces food and oxygen that supports most of lake’s consumers --profundal zone: consists of deep, aphotic regions; too dark for photosynthesis; oxygen levels are low; inhabited by fish adapted to cool dark waters --benthic zone: bottom of lake; inhabited by organisms that can tolerate cool temperatures and low oxygen levels

17. AQUATIC BIOMES oligotrophic: --deep, cold, small surface area relative to depth --nutrient-poor --phytoplankton are sparse, not very productive --not much life --waters often very clear --sediments low in decomposable organic matter eutrophic: --shallow, warm, large surface area relative to depth --nutrient-rich --phytplankton more plentiful and productive --waters often murky --high organic matter content in benthos --leads to high decomposition rates and potentially low DO

18. AQUATIC BIOMES marine zones intertidal: --where land meets water --alternately submerged and exposed twice daily due to tides --communities are subjected to huge daily variations in: (1) availability of saltwater (2) temperature

19. AQUATIC BIOMES marine zones neritic: --beyond intertidal --includes shallow regions over the continental shelves in warm tropical waters --region contains coral reefs --includes a very diverse assortment of vertebrates and invertebrates --very productive currents and waves constantly renew nutrients --light penetrates to ocean floor allowing photosynthesis

20. AQUATIC BIOMES marine zones oceanic pelagic zone: --extends past continental shelves, can be very deep --includes most of the ocean’s water --water is constantly mixed by ocean currents --plankton live in photic zone and are producers for this biome --nutrient concentrations generally lower than in coastal areas --includes a great variety of free swimming animals (fish, large squid, sea turtles, marine mammals )

21. AQUATIC BIOMES marine zones benthic zone: --ocean bottom --below neritic and oceanic pelagic zones --substrate and temperature are very important characteristics in determining community development --nutrients "rain" down from above in form of detritus --communities consist of bacteria, fungi, seaweed and filamentous algae, numerous invertebrates, and fish.

22. AQUATIC BIOMES marine zones abyssal zone: --very deep benthic communities --organisms are adapted to continuous cold --high pressure --low to no light --low nutrients