1. Inequality due to Utilitarianism a)The costs of pollution control are borne by stockholders and customers, both of whom benefit from the polluting activities of the firm. b)The benefits of pollution control flow to those neighbors who once had to put up with the firm's pollution. a)The costs of pollution control are borne by stockholders and customers, both of whom benefit from the polluting activities of the firm. b)The benefits of pollution control flow to those neighbors who once had to put up with the firm's pollution.

2. Environmental Injustice Since the effects of pollution are so harmful, it might seem that no action to remedy pollution could be too drastic, if costs are internalized, they have to be borne by the poors, being not the buyers of stocks. The Process is Environmental injustice.

3. However, if a firm spends a greater amount on a pollution control device than the amount of damage the pollution would cause, then the firm should not install it.

4. The economic utility of society will be damaged, if they do. The amount a firm should invest in pollution control, then, must rest on a cost-benefit analysis: –A precise calculation of what the device or practice would cost and what its expected benefits would be. The economic utility of society will be damaged, if they do. The amount a firm should invest in pollution control, then, must rest on a cost-benefit analysis: –A precise calculation of what the device or practice would cost and what its expected benefits would be.

5. Costs and Benefits If the cost of installing a protective device is greater than amount of damage, the firm should not install such expensive devices.

6. Thomas Klein's View Thomas Klein summarized the procedures for cost-benefit analysis as follows: 1.Identify costs and benefits of the proposed program and the person or sectors incurring or receiving them. Trace transfers Thomas Klein summarized the procedures for cost-benefit analysis as follows: 1.Identify costs and benefits of the proposed program and the person or sectors incurring or receiving them. Trace transfers

7. Evaluate the costs and benefits in terms of their value to beneficiaries and donors. The standard of measure is the value of each marginal unit to demanders and suppliers ideally captured in competitive prices. Useful refinements involve: Evaluate the costs and benefits in terms of their value to beneficiaries and donors. The standard of measure is the value of each marginal unit to demanders and suppliers ideally captured in competitive prices. Useful refinements involve:

8. 1.Recognizing risk by factoring possible outcomes according to probabilities and, where dependent, probability trees. 2.Add up costs and benefits to determine the net social benefit of a project or program. 1.Recognizing risk by factoring possible outcomes according to probabilities and, where dependent, probability trees. 2.Add up costs and benefits to determine the net social benefit of a project or program.

9. Social Audit The problems involved in getting accurate measurements of the benefits and costs of pollution control are also illustrated by the difficulties, businesses have encountered in trying to construct a social audit (a report of the social costs and social benefits of the firm's activities).

10. Measurement of Costs and Benefits This can be difficult, however, How do we measure the costs and benefits of pollution control when they involve damages to human life or health? Measurement itself is also difficult when the effects of pollution are uncertain and therefore hard to predict. This can be difficult, however, How do we measure the costs and benefits of pollution control when they involve damages to human life or health? Measurement itself is also difficult when the effects of pollution are uncertain and therefore hard to predict.

11. Accurate Pollution Measurements In fact, getting accurate pollution measurements is sometimes nearly impossible, and the problem only is multiplied when there are a number of polluters in a single area. Measuring benefits is likewise difficult, which poses significant technical problems for utilitarian approaches to pollution. In fact, getting accurate pollution measurements is sometimes nearly impossible, and the problem only is multiplied when there are a number of polluters in a single area. Measuring benefits is likewise difficult, which poses significant technical problems for utilitarian approaches to pollution.

12. Unilateral Imposition of Costs Even where measurement is not a problem, another problem remains for the utilitarian approach. Is it morally permissible to impose costs on unwilling or unknowing citizens? Can some unilaterally impose costs on others without their consent? Even where measurement is not a problem, another problem remains for the utilitarian approach. Is it morally permissible to impose costs on unwilling or unknowing citizens? Can some unilaterally impose costs on others without their consent?

13. Informed Consent Complications Even getting consent is tricky, because many pollution problems involve information and risks that are extremely technical and difficult to understand. It is perhaps impossible in principle to get informed consent from a segment of the public on some complicated issues. Even getting consent is tricky, because many pollution problems involve information and risks that are extremely technical and difficult to understand. It is perhaps impossible in principle to get informed consent from a segment of the public on some complicated issues.

14. Conclusion Because of these problems, some contend that utilitarianism cannot lead our pollution control policy. Perhaps absolute bans on pollution are more adequate. Some writers even suggest that when risk cannot be reliably estimated. Because of these problems, some contend that utilitarianism cannot lead our pollution control policy. Perhaps absolute bans on pollution are more adequate. Some writers even suggest that when risk cannot be reliably estimated.

15. Conclusion It is best to steer clear of such projects. Others maintain that we should identify those who will bear the risks and take steps to protect them.

16. Social Ecology Many thinkers have argued that the environmental crises, we face are rooted in the social systems of hierarchy and domination that characterize our society. This view, now referred to as social ecology. Until these systems (such as racism, sexism, and social classes) are changed, we will be unable to deal adequately with the environment. Many thinkers have argued that the environmental crises, we face are rooted in the social systems of hierarchy and domination that characterize our society. This view, now referred to as social ecology. Until these systems (such as racism, sexism, and social classes) are changed, we will be unable to deal adequately with the environment.