1. What are Civil, Civilian & Democratic Control?

2. Scope Underlying principles The relationship between values & roles Methods of control/management Conclusions

3. Underlying Principle (I) The effectiveness of the security forces “often depends on the global environment and the particularities of their political cultures, social structures and institutions. The creation of …power only partially depends on a state’s material and human resources…cultural and societal factors, political institutions and pressure from the international arena all shape how a state uses those resources.” (Risa A Brooks, Creating Military Power: The Sources of Military Effectiveness, 2007)

4. Underlying Principle (II) Civil-military relations are organic.

5. Factors Influencing Change Change Transition to Democracy Ethnic Inclusion Demobilisation New Mission Economics Changed Threat Environment Concept of Duty Involvement of external actors End of civil war Peace Settlement

6. Key Issues Identification of core values Definition of security Identification of security threats Determination of appropriate roles for all security providers.

7. The Roles of the Armed Forces Societal Imperative Arises from the social forces, ideologies and institutions dominant within that society. Functional Imperative Stems from the specific threats to the society’s security (Huntington, The Soldier and the State, 1957)

8. The Roles of the Armed Forces National SecurityNation Builder Domestic Military AssistanceMilitary Diplomacy

9. Methods of Control/Management What is civil control? Civil control refers to the allegiance the security services owe to the civis, the state. Does the army serve an individual, a group or the people? Issue will be addressed within the constitution, the Armed Forces Act, the Police Act, code of conduct, etc. Example of the Soviet Union Examples from Latin America

10. Methods of Control/Management What is civilian control? Civilian control refers to the appointment of civilians to positions of responsibility in governance and management of the security services. Refers to more than just the appointment of civilian ministers. Requires a change in the way information is handled and transmitted. Requires a review of decision-making and management practices.

11. Methods of Control/Management What is democratic control? Recognises that civilian governments are not necessarily democratic. Democratic control is viewed as a contested process, not as a fixed attribute of existing democracies. This is because of The contested nature of democracy itself; and, Because some of the largest democratic deficits are to be found in the security sector. (Luckham, Democratization in the South: the Jagged Wave,1996)

12. Methods of Control/Management What is democratic control? Emphasis placed on checks & balances, oversight and accountability. For example: Separation of powers based in law Establishment of relevant ministries, Parliamentary committees with authority over policy and budgets and ability to conduct oversight Holding those in and responsible for the security forces to account Limiting the size of the security forces Establishment of professional norms Placing the military in a subordinate position (a contested concept)

13. Methods of Control/Management A professional force is one with a special skill, a sense of group identity and a system of internal administration. Democratic political control of the security services is more likely when the officer corps is more representative of society. Technological advances result in increased linkages between the [security forces] and society – the civilianisation of the [security] forces. (Janowitz, The Professional Soldier,1964)

14. Methods of Control/Management The Concept of a Profession According to Samuel P. Huntington there are 3 criteria required in a profession… 1. Expertise 2. Responsibility 3. Corporateness

15. Methods of Control/Management The Military Profession “At its most basic, the military is a profession; it proclaims itself to be a profession, its members feel it is a profession and non-members recognise it as a profession.” (Richard A. Gabriel, 1982) Declaration PerceptionRecognition

16. How would you define a professional politician? How would you define a professional civil servant?

17. Professional Civil Servants How do you get what you want? Recruitment and Training Different streams Specialisation Hanbury’s ethical standards

18. Methods of Control/Management Concordance Theory : Highlights dialogue, accommodation, and shared values or objectives among the security personnel, political elites and society. Concordance Theory views the security forces, the political leadership and citizenry as partners and predicts that when they agree about the role of the security forces by achieving a mutual accommodation, involvement of those security forces in domestic politics is less likely to occur. (Rebecca Schiff, ‘Civil-Military Relations Reconsidered: A Theory of Concordance’, Armed Force & Society, Vol.22, No. 1, Fall 1995)

19. Methods of Control/Management 4 Issues of concordance Social composition of the officer corps Political decision-making process Recruitment method Military style

20. Conclusions Civil-military relations are organic. They evolve over time. Adoption of a new model of civil-military relations requires cultural and possibly structural change. There is no perfect formula.