1. OPTION E E6 FURTHER STUDIES OF BEHAVIOR

2. Social Behavior – May benefit animals by allowing cooperation and division of labor (ex. insects) – an actively cooperating group of individuals belonging to the same species and often closely related (bee hive, flock of birds, pack of wolves) S OCIAL B EHAVIOR

3. Examples of social behavior includes: schooling of fish herds of zebra (confuses predators) social foraging (a pack of wolves has more success hunting)

4. Communication is necessary for social behavior Communication – Communication is important in finding food, warning of danger, indicating social status, identifying members of same species, indicating sexual maturity or readiness

5. Animals communicate in a wide variety of ways including auditory, visual, tactile, chemical or electrical signals (ex. bird songs, alarm responses, and hierarchal dominance patterns in wolves) Pheromones – may result in immediate or long term effects often involved in sexual responses Communication in an ant colony – Lord of the Ants – The Ant Whisperer http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5HKl8Luuotw

6. Dominance hierarchies – Suppresses aggression – Many factors affect dominance – often influenced by sex hormones

7. Many animals defend a territory most animals have a – a geographical area that they seldom leave some animals exhibit – defend a section of the home range from other organisms territoriality is well studied among birds Territoriality territoriality is closely tied to

8. Social Insects Elaborate societies are found among the social insects – ex. ants, bees, and wasps – most studied is the honeybee These societies show four main characteristics: Cooperative Overlapping division of E.6.1 D ESCRIBE THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF HONEY BEE COLONIES AND ONE OTHER NON - HUMAN EXAMPLE.

9. Honeybee Society The honeybee society generally consists of: (only fertile female) up to 80,000 at certain times, a E.6.1 D ESCRIBE THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF HONEY BEE COLONIES AND ONE OTHER NON - HUMAN EXAMPLE. Worker Drone Queen http://westmtnapiary.com/bee_castes.html#

10. Members are divided into different groups called, (care for young, find food, defend colony, remove dead members) – different castes allows for E.6.1 D ESCRIBE THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF HONEY BEE COLONIES AND ONE OTHER NON - HUMAN EXAMPLE.

11. Composition of bee society is controlled by She secretes an If queen dies or leaves, E.6.1 D ESCRIBE THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF HONEY BEE COLONIES AND ONE OTHER NON - HUMAN EXAMPLE.

12. Honeybee Communication Communication is accomplished through a series of body movements called a dance: If a scout bee finds a rich food source within 50m of the hive, the scout performs a which excites the other bees and causes them to fly short distances in all directions from the hive until they find the nectar If the food is distant, the scout performs a which follows a figure-eight pattern Dances E.6.1 D ESCRIBE THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF HONEY BEE COLONIES AND ONE OTHER NON - HUMAN EXAMPLE. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lE-8QuBDkkw

13. Natural selection can act at the colony level Natural selection selects for Those individuals with these traits will have a better chance at surviving and therefore a better chance at living long enough to pass on these favorable traits Within the honey bee colony, the workers seem to work “unselfishly” Survival of the colony; however, E.6.2 Outline how natural selection may act at the level of the colony in the case of social organisms.

14. Workers share of their genes with Dad is drone who is so they Queen is so they each receive Arrangements in the bee colony favor survival of the genes of the workers! As they work to ensure the, they are also ensuring E.6.2 Outline how natural selection may act at the level of the colony in the case of social organisms.

15. Altruistic Behavior An animal’s primary mission is to live long enough Some animals spend time and energy helping others – this type of helpful behavior is mutualism. Other times,. This is called altruistic behavior. E.6.3 D ISCUSS THE EVOLUTION OF ALTRUISTIC BEHAVIOR USING TWO NON - HUMAN EXAMPLES.

16. How could altruistic behavior have evolved? Natural selection may favor animals that help a relative because This concept is known as because it includes the genes an animal perpetuates in its kin as well as the genes it perpetuates in its own offspring E.6.3 D ISCUSS THE EVOLUTION OF ALTRUISTIC BEHAVIOR USING TWO NON - HUMAN EXAMPLES.

17. Kin selection – ex. Low ranking prairie dogs act as sentries (guards), risking their own lives to protect their siblings and ensure that the genes they share in common continue to the next generation  Kin-directed altruism Reciprocal altruism – E.6.3 D ISCUSS THE EVOLUTION OF ALTRUISTIC BEHAVIOR USING TWO NON - HUMAN EXAMPLES.

18. E XAMPLES OF A LTRUISTIC B EHAVIOR 1.Naked Mole Rats Live in colonies of up to 80 individuals in burrow systems in parts of East Africa One female is dominant and is the only one to reproduce “Frequent workers” dig the tunnels and bring food “Infrequent workers” are larger and occasionally help with heavier tasks “Non-workers” live in the central nest and protect breeding female and offspring E.6.3 D ISCUSS THE EVOLUTION OF ALTRUISTIC BEHAVIOR USING TWO NON - HUMAN EXAMPLES.

19. If a predator threatens the colony, workers are sent out to be sacrificed so that the queen and her young can live Mole rats in a colony are almost genetically identical Good example of Burrows are a very harsh environment to live in – probably could not survive in that environment without A colony of social organisms is sometimes considered to be one “super-organism” E.6.3 D ISCUSS THE EVOLUTION OF ALTRUISTIC BEHAVIOR USING TWO NON - HUMAN EXAMPLES. Naked mole rats of Africa - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5yRzFZRiTjg http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5yRzFZRiTjg

20. 2.Vampire Bats of Costa Rica Live in groups and feed at night by sucking blood from larger animals If one bat in group fails to feed for more than 2 consecutive nights, it may die of starvation Bats that have fed successfully regurgitate blood for a bat that has failed to feed Good example of because There is an advantage for the whole group, because E.6.3 D ISCUSS THE EVOLUTION OF ALTRUISTIC BEHAVIOR USING TWO NON - HUMAN EXAMPLES.

21. Foraging behavior – Optimal foraging – foraging by animals which Animals may adopt varying foraging strategies to optimize reward E.6.4 O UTLINE TWO EXAMPLES OF HOW FORAGING BEHAVIOR OPTIMIZES FOOD INTAKE, INCLUDING BLUEGILL FISH FORAGING FOR D APHNIA.

22. E XAMPLES OF O PTIMAL F ORAGING B EHAVIOR 1.Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) Feed their young mostly crane-fly larvae obtained by probing their beaks in the soil Starlings become less efficient at probing for larvae as the number of larvae they are holding in their beaks increases E.6.4 O UTLINE TWO EXAMPLES OF HOW FORAGING BEHAVIOR OPTIMIZES FOOD INTAKE, INCLUDING BLUEGILL FISH FORAGING FOR D APHNIA. http://iz.carnegiemnh.org/cranefly/images/Photos/Starlings_feed_on _tipula_larva_by_Frode_Falkenberg.jpg

23. The fewer journeys back to the nest, Optimum number of larvae for starlings to catch and carry back to nest depends on In observed starlings, E.6.4 O UTLINE TWO EXAMPLES OF HOW FORAGING BEHAVIOR OPTIMIZES FOOD INTAKE, INCLUDING BLUEGILL FISH FORAGING FOR D APHNIA.

24. 2.Bluegill Sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) Feed on Daphnia (“water flea”) E.6.4 O UTLINE TWO EXAMPLES OF HOW FORAGING BEHAVIOR OPTIMIZES FOOD INTAKE, INCLUDING BLUEGILL FISH FORAGING FOR D APHNIA.

25. At low densities of Daphnia, fish will eat all sizes of prey At medium densities, fish will eat moderately sized prey At high densities, fish eat mostly larger prey E.6.4 O UTLINE TWO EXAMPLES OF HOW FORAGING BEHAVIOR OPTIMIZES FOOD INTAKE, INCLUDING BLUEGILL FISH FORAGING FOR D APHNIA. Consuming small numbers of larger prey At lower densities, smaller prey has to be consumed to

26. Sexual selection In many species individuals actively compete for mates Sexual selection – in hierarchy may indicate a E.6.5 E XPLAIN HOW MATE SELECTION CAN LEAD TO EXAGGERATED TRAITS.

27. Females may choose mates based on Ex. Male Peacock’s Tail Feathers E.6.5 E XPLAIN HOW MATE SELECTION CAN LEAD TO EXAGGERATED TRAITS. Those males with the biggest, brightest tail feathers have the best chance of being chosen by a female for mating These males successfully mate and pass on their genes Those males with less elaborate tail feathers do not mate and therefore, do not pass on their genes The long-term outcome has been the

28. Mating systems: – males mate with many females – female mates with several males – organisms have only one mate for the breeding season (very common in birds) or for a lifetime (much less common) – stable relationship between two animals of the opposite sex that may ensure cooperative behavior in mating and rearing of young (common in birds)

29. Courtship – specialized behavior that precedes the fertilization of eggs by a male – (Ex. Sticklebacks) Stickleback Partnership – start at 3:13 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cBX8hWuiHTk

30. Many organisms care for their young benefit is cost includes natural selection favors parental care in species in which the benefits to offspring survival outweigh the costs of decreased opportunities to produce additional offspring

31. affect behavior A variety of behavioral cycles occur among organisms: E.6.6 S TATE THAT ANIMALS SHOW RHYTHMICAL VARIATIONS IN ACTIVITY

32. Circadian rhythms – Controlled by an internal, biological clock that is adjusted or reset by Biological clocks seem to result from the interaction of a number of biochemical processes is thought to play a role in timing systems of birds, rats, humans, and some other vertebrates regions of the also are part of biological clocks in mammals E.6.6 S TATE THAT ANIMALS SHOW RHYTHMICAL VARIATIONS IN ACTIVITY

33. Circadian rhythms (daily): animals most active during the animals are active during the animals are active during E.6.6 S TATE THAT ANIMALS SHOW RHYTHMICAL VARIATIONS IN ACTIVITY

34. The time period favored could show to provide Ex: Cockroachs are nocturnal scavengers. Feeding at night provides them with a more humid environment (favored) and possibly protection from predation. E.6.7 Outline two examples illustrating the adaptive value of rhythmical behaviour patterns.

35. Lunar cycle (monthly) – Ex: Marine organisms, such as grunions, beach themselves to deposit eggs and sperm at precisely the high point of the tide E.6.7 Outline two examples illustrating the adaptive value of rhythmical behaviour patterns. Grunion spawning http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/ani mals/fish-animals/bony-fish/us-grunion- spawning-vin/ http://grunion.pepperdine.edu/

36. Migration – Migration – – adaptation to environmental change (moving from an area that becomes less hospitable) Environmental cues trigger physiological responses that lead to migration (ex. changes in day length) Direction of migration may be according to celestial, magnetic, or olfactory cues Examples of migration include arctic terns, swallows, white stork, blue whale, grey whale E.6.7 Outline two examples illustrating the adaptive value of rhythmical behaviour patterns.