SYSTEMATIC INSTRUCTION

SYSTEMATIC INSTRUCTION
Part II—Antecedent and Consequence Procedures Direct participants to take out their handouts with three slides per page, additional handouts, and activity sheets. Review the participant materials with them. This module will take  90 to 120 minutes to deliver. Say: Scaffolding instruction is one form of systematic instruction. Based on students’ various characteristics, many other techniques used in systematic instruction are very effective in teaching mathematics to students with significant disabilities, such as using systematic prompts, reinforcement, and providing feedback. We are going to introduce these techniques in this module.  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University
Objectives By the end of this training, you will be able to describe techniques used in antecedent and consequence procedures explain and apply each technique in teaching math relate the benefits of using systematic instruction Read the slide.  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Systematic Instruction
Systematic instruction is to “define a specific response or set of responses and teach to mastery using defined, consistent prompting and feedback and explicit prompt fading.” (Browder et al., 2008, p. 426) Read the slide.  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Antecedent procedures: Prompting Shaping Modeling (demonstration) Task analysis (TA) Chaining Specific characteristics of a student Consequence procedures: Reinforcement Schedules of reinforcements Corrective feedback Say: Often, a student with a significant disability will respond to some teaching methods that are effective for students without disabilities, such as modeling/demonstration, guided practice, giving multiple examples, providing corrective feedback, using technology, etc. If a student does not respond to teaching methods that work for students without disabilities, specific techniques should be used to accentuate instruction. These techniques can be divided into two categories: First, antecedent procedures, which are implemented before the student responds and are intended to lead to desired response. Second, consequence procedures, which are implemented after the student responds and are designed to reinforce correct responses and/or provide corrective feedback to incorrect responses (Saskatchewan Education, 2001). These techniques are illustrated in the diagram and will be discussed in this module.  Click to reveal next slide. (Saskatchewan Education, 2001) 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

How Skills Are Learned Reinforcing stimulus (RS) Prompt Feedback
Discriminative stimulus (DS) An instruction or a question (antecedent) “John, what is this number?” Response The behavior that follows the instruction or the question “2.” Reinforcing stimulus (RS) Reinforcement “Good job!” Error correction “No, it is 3.” Say: A behavior will happen following the antecedent when it is reinforced. The discriminative stimulus is what evokes a response. It can be an instruction, a direction, or a question, such as, “What is 32 minus 21?”, “What time it is now?”, or “What is X in this equation—3 + X = 12?”. The response is the student’s behavior or answer. Reinforcement or error correction should be given following a student’s response. Prompts may be used in the antecedent procedures, while feedback can be given in the consequence procedures. First, we are going to introduce prompting strategies, which are essential techniques in systematic instruction.  Click to reveal next slide. (Sternberg, 1994) ( 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Cueing and Prompting Cues and prompts are additional stimuli to increase the possibility that a response will occur influence task performance Cueing is to provide simple hints that will indirectly lead students to a correct answer indirectly Prompting is to guide the student through the task and direct him/her to the right answer Say: Cues and prompts are provided to students to help them perform a task successfully. Cueing is meant to provide simple hints that do not lead the student to a direct answer. Prompting is more invasive and is meant to guide the student through the whole task and lead him or her to successfully complete the task. Cues and prompts are not general supports that provide access to the tasks. Different from general support (accommodation), cues and prompts are additional stimuli that may not be required for the completion of a task. For example, a student will need the words of problems to be printed in large fonts. This modified worksheet is a presentation support or an accommodation rather than a cue or prompt. But if only correct answers are printed in large fonts (for example, in a question with multiple choices, option c is correct, and only this option is printed in a large font), it can be considered as a prompt because the student is prompted to pick up the options in large fonts as correct answers.  Click to reveal next slide. (TEA, 2009) 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Types of Cueing and Prompting
Auditory—verbal cues, verbal directions, sound signals (a buzzer or beeper) Visual—gestures, pictures, colors, graphs Physical—hand-over-hand guide or tapping the student Say: Generally, there are three different types of cues and prompts (Read the slide).  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

The System of Least Intrusive Cueing
Activity #1a Most invasive Descriptions Physical gesture Pointing Visual cue Verbal direct cue Verbal indirect cue Single touch to get attention Single point to the task materials A color-coded division sign Hints related to a task “Touch the operation button” Hints to help organize thoughts “Think about what the ‘total’ means” Ask the participants to take out their additional handout #1 titled “Clarification of Support Versus Cueing and Prompting Terms.” Say: On page 3 of this handout is a diagram from TEA that lists a hierarchy of cueing from least invasive to most invasive. A physical gesture is a simple touch to get the student’s attention or to get the student to begin a task, such as tapping the student’s hand. Pointing is to point to a step or to an object. A visual cue is a color-coded or highlighted cue that helps students to discriminate parts of the task. Verbal direct cues and indirect cues are verbal hints to direct students or help them organize their thoughts. Have the participants take out Activity Sheet #1a titled “Systematic Cueing and Prompting.” Ask them to complete the first table based on a scenario.  Allow 3 minutes for the participants to complete. Solicit input from participants or ask them to share with their partners.  Click to reveal next slide. Least invasive (TEA, 2010) 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

The System of Least-Intrusive Prompting
Activity #1b Most Invasive Descriptions Physical assist Adult modeling Student modeling Visual graphic Gesture assist Hand-to-hand assistance Teacher demonstration of task Student demonstration of task Visual step-by-step directions Step-by-step pointing Say: As we discussed before, the difference between cueing and prompting is that cueing does not directly lead to correct answers, while prompting leads the student directly to a correct response. Prompting is more invasive than cueing. There is also a hierarchy system of prompting. Physical assistance is the most invasive prompt because it involves hand-over-hand assistance. Adult modeling and peer modeling mean to demonstrate the task and have the student repeat. A visual graphic is a type of procedural prompt that provides step-by-step direction, such as schedules with photos or line drawings and task analysis with pictures. See examples on Handout #1 on page ___. Have the participants take out Activity Sheet #1b titled “Part II: The System of Prompting.” Ask them to complete the second table based on another scenario.  Allow 3 minutes for the participants to complete. Solicit input from participants or ask them to share with their partners.  Click to reveal next slide. Verbal direction Step-by-step verbal directions Least invasive (TEA, 2010) 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Fading “It is not just the use of defined prompts that makes systematic instruction effective, but the use of explicit prompt fading strategies.” (Browder et al., 2008) Fading—to remove or withdraw prompts gradually Say: The ultimate goal of using prompts is to have students perform a task independently. We do not want our students to be prompt-dependent. According to Browder and her colleagues, who identified evidence-based instructional strategies, “It is not just the use of defined prompts that makes systematic instruction effective, but the use of explicit prompt fading strategies.” Fading means to withdraw prompts gradually so that the response occurs and is reinforced without prompts. Prompt fading can be implemented in various ways.  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Effective Methods of Prompting and Fading
Constant time delay (CTD) Progressive time delay Least-invasive to most-invasive prompts Simple Complex Say: How and which prompts to use will be depend on how the student learns and the task or skill to be learned. According to research, three prompt fading methods are commonly used in teaching mathematics to students with significant disabilities. These include constant time delay (or CTD), progressive time delay, and least-invasive to most-invasive prompts (or least-intrusive prompts). They are listed as simple to complex procedures. We will introduce these techniques one by one.  Click “Constant time delay” to reveal slides #12 to 14.  Click “Progressive time delay” to reveal slide #15. Click “Least-invasive to most-invasive prompts” to reveal and continue from slide #16. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

CTD First, teach an initial trial, session or several sessions at zero delay Second, wait for a defined latency period (like 4 seconds) before giving the prompt Keep using the CTD until the student has learned to make the correct response ahead of the 4-second delayed prompt Video Say: Time delay is a procedure involving a latency period, which is the teachers’ silence and inactivity, during which students will have opportunities to respond without prompts. Time delay is an effective prompt fading procedure. There are different time delay methods, with CTD and progressive time delay being the most effective and commonly used methods. CTD means to give a constant delay period (like a 4-second delay or 6-second delay). The time delay, also called “latency,” is the time between the direction or question and giving prompts. The teacher waits in silence for the student to respond. The “wait time” is critical because it allows students to think about the task, figure out what to do, and perform the task. For students with motor impairments, this “wait time” is especially important. When using CTD, the teacher will teach a skill with zero delay (which means they will give immediate prompts) in the initial trails. Next, the teacher will teach the skill with zero delay in the first several trials, followed by a 4-second delay on the next several trials. After a few more trials or sessions, the teacher will use a 4-second delay only until the student can give the correct response within the 4-second latency period. Here is a quick video about CTD.  (Click hyperlink).  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

CTD Activity #2 Grade Level—First grade Objective—Given an analog clock, the student will tell time to the nearest hour correctly within three trials TEKS—“read time to the hour and half-hour using analog and digital clocks” 111.13(b)8(B) Procedures First session uses simultaneous prompting Second session uses zero delay prompting in the beginning several trials, then only uses 4-second delayed model prompt Third session uses 4-second delayed model prompt only Say: Here is an example of using CTD to teach telling time to the nearest hour. The teacher teaches the first session using zero delay. The clock is set up, and students are asked, “What time is it?”. The prompt is given immediately. Both model and verbal prompts are used. The teacher models how to locate the short hand on the clock and track down the next number behind it. Simultaneously, a think-aloud is done by saying, “Find the hour hand, the number following the hour hand is 3, so it is 3 o’clock now.” The students repeat the process and are reinforced immediately. Simultaneous prompting will be repeated several times, so the right concept is reinforced, and errorless learning is provided. In the next session, the teacher teaches several trials with zero delay to warm up the student. Then, a 4-second delayed model prompt is used. Always wait for 4 seconds before giving any prompts so that the student will have time to respond without prompts. In the third session, the teacher uses only a 4-second delayed prompt. When the student responds correctly within the 4-second period, the skill is learned. Have the participants take out Activity Sheet #2 titled “Prompting and Fading Procedures.” Have them complete the first row of constant time delay according to the directions on the activity sheet.  Allow 5 minutes to complete. Solicit input from participants.  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

CTD By using CTD, students will learn the correct response with few or no errors (Whalen et al., 1996) If errors occur, the teacher may reintroduce simultaneous prompting or may teach students to wait for the prompt if they do not know the answer CTD is easy to implement and can be used in one-on-one instruction, group instruction, peer tutoring, and community-based instruction (Gardill and Browder, 1995) Read slide. Say: For students with physical and multiple disabilities, it is important to give longer time delays (like 6 or 8 seconds) before presenting a prompt.  Click blue arrow at bottom right to go back to slide #11. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Progressive Time Delay
Activity #2 An initial trial/session or several sessions of simultaneous prompting (zero delay) Gradual increase in prompt delay (from 0 seconds to 2 seconds to 4 seconds and up to 6 and 8 seconds or higher) until the student responds correctly before the prompts Time-telling example (Snell and Brown, 2000) Say: Progressive time delay is another method of fading prompts. In this approach, the teacher also begins with zero delay, but the latency period is gradually increased, such as from 0 seconds to 2 seconds to 4 seconds, and up to 6 or 8 seconds or more (Snell and Brown, 2000). Here is an example of using progressive time delay: Jerome wants to learn to follow his schedule in school. The goal is to have him learn to initiate the next activity at the correct time by following a picture schedule. In the first phase, the teacher uses zero delayed prompts. The digital time is read on Jerome’s watch, and then the correct activity photo is pointed to. For example, the teacher looks at the digital watch and says, “It is 11:45,” and then points to the photo of the dining room. Jerome then imitates looking at his watch and pointing to the correct picture. The teacher then resets Jerome’s watch for the next time and repeats this procedure for all scheduled times. The zero delayed prompts are used for 2 days. In the second phase, the teacher begins to delay the prompts by 2 seconds, then advances by 2-second increments after each 2 days of instruction. If an error occurs (for example, at 4 seconds), the teacher drops back to zero delay for 1 day, then uses progressive time delay (for example, at 2 seconds). Once a delay of 8 seconds is reached, the training will remain until Jerome is able to respond correctly before the prompt is presented (Snell and Brown, 2000). Have the participants take out Activity Sheet #2 titled “Prompting and Fading Procedures.” Have them complete the second row of progressive time delay according to the directions on the activity sheet.  Allow 5 minutes to complete. Solicit input from participants.  Click blue arrow at bottom right to go back to slide #11. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Least-To-Most Prompts
Increase assistance and start with the least-intrusive prompt. Use prompts systematically: First establish a hierarchy of prompts based on a student’s situation. Start with the least-intrusive prompts (like a latency). If the student does not respond, use the next-level prompt. Make sure to give a latency (like 4 seconds or 6 seconds) after each prompt so the student will have time to respond before the next prompt. Say: This method is to use least to most prompts. It is also called least prompts or least-intrusive prompts. We already discussed the hierarchy of cues and prompts that are based on the assistance a student requires to give the correct response. In this method, the teacher will need to decide on three or four prompts to use and put them into a hierarchy. The decision will be made according to the student’s characteristics and the task to be taught. Some students might need physical prompts when performing a task, while some might only need verbal prompts to perform the same task successfully. However, the final prompt should be direct and intrusive enough to elicit the correct response. The teacher will start with the least-intrusive prompts (like latency). If the student does not respond, the teacher will use the prompt on the next level of the hierarchy. When you use this method, make sure to give a latency period (like 4 seconds or 6 seconds) after each prompt, so the student will have time to respond before you move to the next level of prompts.  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Least-to-Most Prompts
Least assistance A latency where no prompt is given Cueing (like a gesture) Verbal prompt Model prompt Full/partial physical prompt Say: Here is a general hierarchy of prompts. The top one is latency, which means to wait and not give any prompts. Waiting for 3 to 5 seconds so that the student will have a chance to think and respond is very important for students with significant disabilities. The rest of the prompts have already been discussed.  Click to reveal next slide. Most assistance (Snell and Brown, 2000) 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Mixed Prompts Mixing prompts means combining different-level prompts (for example, verbal + physical, verbal + model, pictorial + verbal) Mixed prompts are used more often and more effectively Full and partial physical prompts should always be paired with less-intrusive prompt forms, such as verbal or gestural prompts Say: More often, the teacher will use a combination of prompts, such as modeling with verbal prompts and verbal prompts with gestures. Prompts need to be faded. When physical prompts are eliminated, it is important for other prompts to gain stimulus control.  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Mixed Prompts Teaching John, who has a moderate disability, to add two single-digit numbers by using a number line Designed system of prompting: Latency Verbal prompt Verbal + model Physical + verbal Say: For example, if you want to teach a student who has a moderate intellectual disability, you can develop a system of prompting and use it to teach students. The first level is latency, where you just wait for the response without giving any prompts. The last levels, and most invasive, are physical and verbal prompts. These prompts help the teacher to make sure the student is able to perform a task correctly. You always start from the first level, and if the response does not occur, you then move to the next level.  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Mixed Prompts Verbally tell John the steps
Handout #2 Stimulus (antecedent)—“John, what is 2 plus 3?” State the question and wait (latency period) Verbally tell John the steps “Move the beads on the abacus and find the total” Demonstrate how to add 2 plus 3 with the abacus, and verbally state the steps Hand-over-hand, help John move the beads, and verbally state the steps Least invasive Say: Here is a diagram telling us what the teacher will say or do for each level of prompting. (Read the diagram). The teacher will always start from the top—the least intrusive prompt—and move to the next level if the correct response does not occur. Have the participants take out their Handout #2 titled “Least-To-Most Prompting.” Review the scripts with the participants.  Click to reveal next slide. Most invasive 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Least-to-Most Prompts
Activity #2b Video Say: Here is a video of using least prompts to teach a task. Let’s watch it and connect it with what we have just discussed.  Click hyperlink to play the video, and ask the participants to reflect on what they see and what they think about it. Have the participants take out Activity Sheet #2 titled “Prompting and Fading Procedures.” Have them complete the last row of least-to-most prompts according to the directions on the activity sheet.  Allow 3 minutes to complete. Solicit input from participants.  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Caution About Using Least Prompts
Least prompts may be less efficient than other methods, such as CTD (Gast, Adul, Wolery, and Doyle, 1988) Least prompts may not be applicable when teaching a verbal response, such as verbal counting from 0 to 10 Say: The method of least-to-most prompts can be less efficient than other methods because it is time consuming. You might have to use all levels of prompts at the beginning again and again as the student tries out each of them. Sometimes, least prompts may not be applicable when teaching certain math skills where multiple prompts cannot be used, such as verbal counting.  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Stimulus Fading and Shaping
Modifying stimulus materials to increase the probability of correct responding Stimulus fading—a stimulus prompt is gradually eliminated by reducing the salience (or obviousness) of the prompt (for example, highlighting, color- coding, picture cueing, etc.) Say: Sometimes, students do not respond to the prompts or they become prompt-dependent. As an alternative approach, prompts can be built into the materials, which are called “within-stimulus prompts.” One advantage to building prompts into materials is that the students can practice by themselves and give self-instruction with the materials (Snell and Brown, 2000). There are two procedures of using “within-stimulus prompts,” including stimulus fading and stimulus shaping. Stimulus fading means to gradually remove prompts from the materials, such as reducing the salience of the prompt, or eliminating visual cues. Please see the flash card example of the number 3.  (Click). In the first flash card, there are three stars to help the student understand this number is 3.  (Click). More and more  (Click), the print of stars is faded until only the number 3 is left  (Click). The student will associate the numeral 3 with the quantity of 3.  Click to reveal next slide. 3 3 3 3 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Stimulus Fading and Shaping
Stimulus shaping—using a series of increasingly more difficult discriminations Example—teacher says, “Find number 3” Early teaching trial: Middle teaching trial: Later teaching trial: 3 3 # &  Say: Stimulus shaping means to increasingly use less discriminative materials. For example, when teaching to discriminate the numerals 1 through 9, an array of four flash cards lies on the table in front of the student or is printed on a worksheet. The instruction is to “Find number 3.” In early trials, the student can easily identify the number 3 from other blank cards. Later, he or she will be asked to identify the numeral with other symbols. In the final stage, the student is asked to identify the numeral from other numerals, which is the least discriminative. Ask the participants to discuss among themselves, come up with some similar ideas, or share what they’ve done in their classroom with the rest of the participants.  Allow 3 minutes for the participants to discuss.  Click to reveal next slide. 1 3 4 8 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Shaping Shaping means to accept approximations of a correct response when teaching a new skill It is important to encourage students’ initial attempts. The teacher should be aware of the students’ progress toward a goal and reinforce earlier approximations Differential reinforcement and shifting criterion for reinforcement should be used. Read the first two bullets. Say: Teachers should use differential reinforcement to reinforce students’ earlier approximations and encourage their progress. For example, given a flash card with time “9:30” on it, if a student can tell time to hours, he or she can still be reinforced. You can point at the number nine and say, “Good job; this is nine,” then point at “9:30” and say, “It is 9 o’clock and thirty minutes.” You will use differential reinforcement to improve skill mastery. In this case, at the beginning, you reinforce a student when he or she can tell the correct hour, and later on, you will correct the student and only reinforce a student when he or she can tell the time correctly. Have the participants think about some additional examples they used or can use.  Click to reveal next slide. 9:30  2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Modeling Activity Demonstrating a desired response and providing a picture of what the correct response is General steps: Get the student’s attention Ask the student to demonstrate a skill If the student does not respond or responds incorrectly, model the correct response Have the student imitate the model Reinforce appropriate imitation Read slide. Present the participants with a set of flash cards, numbered 1 through 9, and nine blocks. Working with a partner, and using the modeling prompts, participants are to match the correct flash cards to a set of blocks (or other manipulatives).  Allow 5 minutes for the activity.  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Task Analysis is defined as “the content and sequence of skills, behaviors, and activities to be taught through instruction” (Bigge and Best, 2005, p. 152) involves breaking skills, behaviors, and activities into small teachable units is used to teach complex skills or activities (Best, Heller, and Bigge, 2010) Say: Task analysis is especially valuable for teaching students with significant disabilities. Learning is a cumulative process because many skills are built on one another. Task analysis establishes a sequential learning of skills and allows teachers to teach step by step. Read slide.  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Forward and Backward Chaining
Forward chaining—task is broken into steps in a logical order, from top to bottom or from first step to last step Backward chaining—instruction starts from the bottom steps and proceeds backward. Say: Forward chaining is to break a task into steps in a logical order, from top to bottom or from first step to last step. For example, when teaching subtracting two-digit numbers, teach the student to subtract the first numeral from right to the left. Backward chaining means the instruction starts from the bottom steps and proceeds backward. For example, when teaching measuring skills with a ruler, the teacher lines up the ruler with an object, marks the measurement, and asks the student to read the number. When the student can tell the measurement, the teacher goes to the last step (backward), and has the student mark the measurement on the ruler and read the number he has marked.  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

TA Process Designing a TA Field-test TA Discrepancy analysis Criterion setup for performance Systematically teaching components of task Probing individual’s skill level and revising TA Continuing systematic teaching until mastery is achieved Say: The general process of performing a task analysis, or TA, includes designing a task analysis, field-testing it, conducting a discrepancy analysis, setting up criteria for performance, systematic teaching steps of a task, assessing the student’s skill level and revising the TA, and continuing systematic teaching until the student has met all criteria for performance.  Click “Designing a task analysis” to reveal slides #30 to 31. Say: Next, we’re going to introduce discrepancy analysis.  Click “Discrepancy analysis” to reveal slide #32. Say: Discrepancy analysis helps the teacher make a plan for what to teach and which adaptations should be made. The teacher will also need to set up criteria for acceptable performance in each step so that the student can be reinforced based on the criteria. After the student demonstrates some mastery of the first step, the teacher can proceed to teach the next steps. During this process, the teacher should probe the student’s skill level or revise the task analysis as needed. The teacher will continue to use systematic teaching (that is, using prompts and reinforcement) until the successful completion of the task has been achieved.  Click the blue arrow on bottom right to reveal slide #33 and continue from there. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Designing a TA Develop an ecological inventory Identify a task Observe how a task is performed List all steps needed to complete the task Start each step with an action term Use a tone of direction Be simple, but specific Make an observably different response in each step Field-test TA and revise Say: The first step of designing a TA is to develop an ecological inventory, which involves activities like identifying a task, observing how a task is performed, and listing all steps needed to complete the task. There are some principles for writing each step: start each step with an action term, such as “read the question,” “circle the numbers,” “write down the numbers,” etc. Use a tone as if you are directing the student. Steps should be described specifically and with as few words as possible. There should be an observable difference between responses in each step. After you have developed the inventory with all the steps, you need to field-test the task analysis. You can test it with a typical same-age peer (not the target student) and record their responses. You may revise the step if it is not specific enough, not different from other steps, not clear, or not sensible by adding or removing steps or revising the wording.  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Developing and Defining Steps
Activity #3 TA for the use of a calculator in planning purchases: (Snell and Brown, 2000) Turn calculator “on”. Enter allowance ($10.00). Enter first digit, “1.” Enter second digit of allowance, “0.” Enter third digit of allowance, “0.” Enter fourth digit of allowance, “0.” Enter subtraction sign, “–.” Enter first digit of item selected from store flyer ($5.98). Enter “5.” Enter second digit of selected item. Enter “9.” Enter third digit of selected item. Enter “8.” Enter equals sign, “=.” State if negative number (“minus” or “no minus”). State if can buy (“No minus, I can buy it,” or “Minus, I cannot buy it.”) Say: This is an example of using TA for a student to use a calculator to plan for shopping. The task has been divided into small steps and put into a logical order. All the steps are short, but specific and are in a tone of direction. For TA, you can add more steps or combine some steps based on the individual student’s characteristics. In this case, steps 2 through 5 may be combined into one step, such as “Enter allowance ($10),” for the student who has a higher-level ability. Have participants take out Activity Sheet #3 titled “Task Analysis.” Have participants complete activity #3. Have participants share with their partners. Click the blue arrow on the bottom right to go back to slide #28. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Discrepancy Analysis Handout #3 Activity #4 Baseline assessment The target student is asked to perform the entire task following the TA with teacher assistance Data is collected Discrepancy analysis—determining discrepancy between skills the target student has and skills needed to complete the task Say: After you field-test the TA, you are going to use it to test your target student’s responses as a baseline assessment, also called a generalization probe. The student will attempt to complete the entire task with minimal assistance. Make sure you get him or her to the next step with minimal assistance (for example, you can use the least-to-most prompts). You will collect data on his or her responses and the assistance provided. Discrepancy analysis is to compare a student’s current levels of skills to skills he or she needs to complete a task without support. Discrepancy analysis is conducted based on data collection in the baseline assessment. Ask the participants to take out Handout #3 titled “Ecological Inventory and Discrepancy Analysis Form.” Say: Here is a discrepancy analysis form you can use for your student. In the first two rows, you will record the student’s name, age, instructional settings, task, and other information. Under the column of “Steps,” you will list the steps involved in the task. In the second column, you will record whether the student gives correct or incorrect responses. After you observe the student’s performance in each step, you will be able to decide which skills you need to teach or which adaptations need to be provided for the student. On the second page of the handout, there is an example of a discrepancy analysis using the TA from Snell and Brown. Please go through the form, and discuss with your partners to answer the following questions: What information is important to record in this form? What some of the benefits of using this form?  Allow 3 minutes for discussion. Solicit input from the participants. Ask the participants to take out Activity Sheet #4 titled “Discrepancy Analysis,” and have participants complete the activity.  Click the blue arrow on the bottom right to go back to slide #29.  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

TA Data Collection Activity #5 Student: Jackson Grade level: First grade Task: Adding two single-digit numbers Objective: Given a worksheet, the student will use TouchMath to add two single-digit numbers with 100% accuracy in 4 out of 5 trials. Steps Trials or Date 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 5. Write down the final number V I 4. Count the points on the second number M 3. Find the point on the second number 2. Count how many points are on the first number G 1. Touch the point on the first number P Say: One benefit of TA is that it can serve as an assessment tool. A data-recording form can be used to evaluate student progress and educational outcomes. By using a TA datasheet, the teacher can monitor the student’s performance in each step and identify mastered and nonmastered skills. The teacher can decide what to teach or reteach based on the information. On the data collection sheet, it is very clear which prompt was used in each step for each trial. We can tell the prompt is fading, and the student can perform some steps independently. It is worth noting that the steps are listed from the bottom to the top. In this way, the teacher can observe prompt levels progressively for each trials. For example, the prompt for step 1, “Touch the point on the first number” has changed from physical to modeling, and then to gesture, in five trials. However, in step 4, “Counting on the points on the second number,” the prompt does not change, which indicates the teacher needs to figure out how to improve the skill, such as teaching the skill of “counting on.” Have the participants take out Activity Sheet #5 titled “Task Analysis Data Collection.” Direct the participants to complete the activity. Have participants discuss and share ideas with their partners.  Click to reveal next slide. Key: P—physical assist; M—model prompt; V—verbal prompt; G—gesture; I—independent 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Specific characteristics of a student Antecedent procedures: Prompting Shaping Modeling (demonstration) TA Chaining Consequence procedures: Reinforcement Schedules of reinforcements Corrective feedback Say: We have discussed techniques in antecedent procedures, now we are going to talk about techniques in consequence procedures. Click to reveal the animation—the block of consequence procedures will flash.  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Reinforcement Response is more likely to occur again when followed by a pleasant experience. Response is less likely to occur again when followed by a unpleasant experience Reinforcement is to encourage and maintain desired responses by rewarding the appropriate response as a consequence Say: Reinforcement works based on the theory that a response is more likely to occur again when followed by a pleasant experience, while it is less likely to occur again when followed by an unpleasant experience. Giving a positive reinforcement to a student when he or she presents a desired behavior or response will motivate him or her to present it again. The student will be motivated by encouragement and rewards.  Click to reveal next slide. (Saskatchewan Learning, 2010) 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Reinforcement Procedures
Use individualized reinforcement Flexibly deliver dynamic reinforcement Fade external and unnatural reinforcements to natural and self-reinforcement (Downing, 1996) Say: There are three basic rules for giving reinforcement. First, reinforcement should be unique to the individual student. Delivery of reinforcement should be based on the student’s performance, progress, and preference. It will not be the same for each student. Delivering reinforcement is also a very dynamic process, including changing schedules and criteria. Teachers should use it flexibly. When we teach a skill, the ultimate goal is for the student to master it and maintain it. So, any external or unnatural reinforcement should be faded over time because we want the student to present a desire response using natural or self-reinforcement.  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Reinforcers Edible, physical, material, social reinforcers Immediate reinforcers Satiation avoidance Say: Here are different types of reinforcers, including edible reinforcers (like candy and snacks), physical reinforcers like a pat on the shoulder), material reinforcers (like activities or objects), and social reinforcers (like a praise, a smile, and good remarks). Edible reinforcers are also very effective. Social reinforcers are most natural and convenient to use. Normally, social reinforcers are given every time another type of reinforcer is used. Satiation means the student no longer responds to a certain reinforcer. The teacher should change reinforcers based on the student’s preference. Ask the participants to give examples of how they select reinforcers for their students.  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Schedule of Reinforcement
Four intermittent schedules: Fixed ratio—a reinforcer for every five correct answers Variable ratio—a reinforcer for an average of every five correct answers Fixed interval—a reinforcer for every 2-minute interval Variable interval—a reinforcer for an average of every 2-minute interval Variable schedules—more effective because the student does not know when the reinforcement is coming, so will work to get it Schedule extension—more and more until the skill is well-established without a reinforcement Say: In initial training sessions, correct responses need to be reinforced every time in order to promote skill acquisition. However, students should not always be reinforced when giving correct responses. It is neither a real-life situation nor economical. Constant reinforcement may also cause effects of satiation. Thus, in later training sessions, intermittent schedules of reinforcement should be introduced. There are four types of intermittent schedules. (Read slide).  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Corrective Feedback Interrupt the incorrect response, and present the question or instruction again When error occurs, say, “No,” and present the question or instruction again Model the correct response, and let the student repeat it Use the next-level prompt (for example, use model prompt instead of verbal prompt) Say: There are four ways to give corrective feedback, or error correction. First, interrupt the incorrect response, and present the question or instruction again. Second, when an error occurs, say “No,” and present the question or instruction again. Or, the teacher models the correct response and lets the student repeat it. Last is using the next-level prompt (like using model prompt instead of verbal prompt).  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Corrective Feedback Error correction—be direct, immediate, and actively involve the student Example: Student tells time incorrectly. Teacher says, “No, it’s two fifteen. What’s the time now?” Student says, “Two fifteen.” Teacher says, “Right, two fifteen.” (Barbetta et al., 1993a and b, 1994) Say: When giving corrective feedback, it is extremely important to be direct and immediate, and to actively involve the student. Students with significant disabilities lack the ability to discriminate correct and incorrect answers. The teacher should teach them the correct concept and provide errorless learning so that the students will not be confused and hold the wrong concept.  Click to reveal next slide. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

Closure Take out your Change of Practice Plan. Think about what you learned in this module, and relate it to your classroom. Put down some ideas of what you want to start to use in your classroom. Review the objectives set forth at the beginning of this training. Have participants write down ideas of what they learned in this module that can be taken to use in their classroom.  Click to end the presentation. 2010 Region 3 Education Service Center / Texas A&M University

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