1. Chapter 7 The public interest: A n abstraction about what advances the welfare of the population. Types of interest groups: Business (large and small, peak and trade), workers, public interest. Tactics to influence policy making –Public communication –Public policy research institutes or think tanks –Philanthropy –Lobbying (information; money)

2. Chapters 8 and 9 Policy making in the USA

3. Policy making in the United States (structure – Chapter 8) Decentralized: with multiple points for influence and discussion Orderly Usually done by the same people who know each other and the issues well.

4. The architecture of American Politics Government. Responsible for making, executing, and interpreting and applying the laws of the land. Presidential Democracy (as opposed to parliamentary democracy) Separation of Powers supported by a sophisticated system of checks and balances. –Horizontally (executive, legislative, and judicial) –Vertically (Federal, states, municipalities) Criticism: Prone to gridlock

5. Constituent institutions Legislative: Congress and Senate Executive: White House, Cabinets, independent executive agencies (these last also have legislative and judicial responsibilities) Judicial

6. Legislative The US Congress has 435 representatives and 100 senators elected from the 50 states. T They work on specialized committees and subcommittees. Actions of subcommittees are upheld 95 % of the time by committees, which, in turn, are upheld about 90 % on the floor. Representatives and senators employ nearly 12,000 staff. Another 3,000 staff are attached permanently to the committees.

7. Executive: The White House The President’s office. Staff by chief aids who the President hires and fires at will.

8. Executive: The Cabinet Formed by Secretaries (the equivalent to Ministers in other countries) who head the major administrative departments. Within each there are sub-units: bureaus, agencies, services, etc. The president is in charge but has limited ability to make them carry out new policies. They are populated by civil servants. The president nominates deputies (more than in other countries) but the large majority are permanent bureaucrats.

9. Executive: independent regulatory commissions Many including The Environmental protection agency (EPA), the Federal Reserve System; Securities and Exchange Commission; Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. They report to Congress Comparable in size and power to department bureaus. Independence is assure because headed by odd number of commissioners with terms different to President. Rules made by the regulatory commissions have the force and effect of an act of Congress. They have quasi-judicial power call abjudication.

10. How much autonomy? It seems as if the bureaucracy does not have to answer fully to the public for its actions Three factors enable businesses to influence: –Agency personnel are drawn from and return to the regulated industries. –The regulated industries are the ones providing the information the regulatory agencies has to use. –Regulated industries provide expert witnesses when regulations are formulated

11. The judiciary Civil law: disputes between two parties. Criminal law: violations of the penal code The US follows the common or judge-made law (instead of statutory law). Of special note for American businesses is the Uniform Commercial Code, which standardizes the hodgepodge of judge-made and legislature- made laws for commerce. It has been adopted by all states except Louisiana.

12. Political parties The US election method gives not seats to second- or third-place winners (in contrast to the most common system of proportional representation. The result two parties in “Centerville.” Compensates for the fragmentation and standoff built into the policy making system. Presidential elections since 1968. In turn the democrats have traditionally held control of Congress. In any event, Whatever they call themselves, all parties find themselves pull to the center on economic policies, with little room for maneuver, whenever they take office.