1. Reinforcement Learning Ata Kaban A.Kaban@cs.bham.ac.uk School of Computer Science University of Birmingham

2. Learning by reinforcement Examples: –Learning to play Backgammon –Robot learning to dock on battery charger Characteristics: –No direct training examples – delayed rewards instead –Need for exploration & exploitation –The environment is stochastic and unknown –The actions of the learner affect future rewards

3. Brief history & successes Minsky’s PhD thesis (1954): Stochastic Neural-Analog Reinforcement Computer Analogies with animal learning and psychology TD-Gammon (Tesauro, 1992) – big success story Job-shop scheduling for NASA space missions (Zhang and Dietterich, 1997) Robotic soccer (Stone and Veloso, 1998) – part of the world-champion approach ‘An approximate solution to a complex problem can be better than a perfect solution to a simplified problem’

4. The RL problem States Actions Immediate rewards Eventual reward Discount factor from any starting state

5. Markov Decision Process (MDP) MDP is a formal model of the RL problem At each discrete time point –Agent observes state s t and chooses action a t –Receives reward r t from the environment and the state changes to s t+1 Markov assumption: r t =r(s t,a t ) s t+1 =  (s t,a t ) i.e. r t and s t+1 depend only on the current state and action –In general, the functions r and  may not be deterministic and are not necessarily known to the agent

6. Agent’s Learning Task Execute actions in environment, observe results and Learn action policy that maximises from any starting state in S. Here is the discount factor for future rewards Note: Target function is There are no training examples of the form (s,a) but only of the form ((s,a),r)

7. Example: TD-Gammon Immediate reward: +100 if win -100 if lose 0 for all other states Trained by playing 1.5 million games against itself Now approximately equal to the best human player

8. Example: Mountain-Car States: position and velocity Actions: accelerate forward, accelerate backward, coast Rewards –Reward=-1for every step, until the car reaches the top –Reward=1 at the top, 0 otherwise,  <1 The eventual reward will be maximised by minimising the number of steps to the top of the hill

9. Q Learning algorithm (in deterministic worlds) For each (s,a) initialise table entry Observe current state s Do forever: –Select an action a and execute it –Receive immediate reward r –Observe new state s’ –Update table entry as follows: –s:=s’

10. Example updating Q given the Q values from a previous iteration on the arrows

11. Exploration versus Exploitation The Q-learning algorithm doesn’t say how we could choose an action If we choose an action that maximises our estimate of Q we could end up not exploring better alternatives To converge on the true Q values we must favour higher estimated Q values but still have a chance of choosing worse estimated Q values for exploration (see the convergence proof of the Q-learning algorithm in [Mitchell, sec. 13.3.4.]). An action selection function of the following form may employed, where k>0:

12. Summary Reinforcement learning is suitable for learning in uncertain environments where rewards may be delayed and subject to chance The goal of a reinforcement learning program is to maximise the eventual reward Q-learning is a form of reinforcement learning that doesn’t require that the learner has prior knowledge of how its actions affect the environment

13. Further topics: Nondeterministic case What if the reward and the state transition are not deterministic? – e.g. in Backgammon learning and playing depends on rolls of dice! Then V and Q needs redefined by taking expected values Similar reasoning and convergent update iteration will apply Will continue next week.