1. Figure 8-1. The U. S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976. Note the various temperature reversals, which act as thermal lids on the lower parts of the atmosphere. In the troposphere, gases are well mixed. From Neiburger et al. (1982).

3. Figure 8-2. Schematic representation of the variation in total energy emitted per unit wavelength as a function of temperature for a perfect radiator. With increasing temperature the total amount of energy increases and the wavelength of maximum energy decreases.

4. Figure 8-3. Absorptivity of various atmospheric gases, and the atmosphere as a whole, as a function of wavelength. From Fleagle and Businger (1963).

5. Figure 8-4. Incoming (shortwave) and outgoing (longwave) radiation as a function of latitude. The crossover occurs at ~40 o. At lower latitudes there is a heat excess, at higher latitudes a heat deficit.

6. Figure 8-5. Schematic representation of the general circulation of the earth’s atmosphere. L, low pressure; H, high pressure. See text for discussion. Modified from Miller and Thompson (1975).

7. Figure 8-6. Schematic representation of a subsidence inversion and its effect on the dispersal of air pollutants. In the case of the normal atmospheric lapse rate, the air pollutants will continue to rise and be dispersed, but when an inversion occurs, the air pollutants are trapped below the inversion and can build up in concentration.

11. Figure 8-7. Increase in greenhouse gases since 1750. CFCs (as represented by CFC 11 ) are entirely of anthropogenic origin and don’t become significant until after 1950. Besides their role as greenhouse gases, CFCs are also important in the breakdown of ozone. From Berner and Berner (1996).

13. Figure 8-8. Mean monthly concentrations of CO 2 at Mauna Loa, Hawaii. From Berner and Berner (1996).

15. Figure 8-9. The carbon cycle. Reservoir concentrations are in 10 15 g (Gt) carbon. Fluxes are in Gt C y -1. From Berner and Berner (1996).

16. Figure 8-10. Variation in methane abundance from 1841 to 1996. The fitted curve is a sixth-order polynomial. Data from Etheridge et al. (1994) and IPCC (1996).

18. Figure 8-11. Variations in temperature, CO 2, and CH 4 concentrations in Antarctica during the past 240,000 years. From Lorius et al. (1993).

19. Figure 8-12. Surface temperature of the Pacific Ocean based on oxygen isotope ratios. From THE BLUE PLANET, 2 nd Edition by B. J. Skinner, S. C. Porter and D. B. Botkin. Copyright 1999. This material is used by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

20. Figure 8-13. Absorption cross sections for oxygen and ozone in the 100 to 300 nm wavelengths. Also shown is the solar flux density and the wavelengths of biologically harmful radiation (UV-B and UV-C). From vanLoon and Duffy (2000).

21. Figure 8-14. Altitude versus variations in photon and molecular densities. The optimum altitude for ozone formation occurs where these curves cross.

22. Figure 8-15. Seasonal variation of ozone concentrations (in Dobson units) at Halley Bay, Antarctica, for two different time periods. From Solomon (1990).

24. Figure 8-16. Variation in abundances of various species, on a 24-hour cycle, produced during a photochemical smog event. From vanLoon and Duffy (2000).

29. Figure 8-17. Average Cl - concentration (mg L -1 ) of rainwater for the United States from July 1995 to June 1996. From Berner and Berner (1996).

30. Figure 8-18. Average Cl - /Na + weight ratio of rainwater for the United States from July 1995 to June 1956. From Berner and Berner (1996).

31. Figure 8-19. Global SO 2 produced by the burning of fossil fuel, 1940 to 1986, in Tg SO 2 -S y -1. (1 Tg = 10 6 metric tons = 10 12 g). From Berner and Berner (1996). Figure 8-20. Global NO x produced by the burning of fossil fuel, 1970 to 1986, in Tg No x -N y -1. From Berner and Berner (1996).

32. Figure 8-21. Generalized isoconcentration contours for SO 4 2- (in mg L -1 ) for atmospheric precipitation over the contiguous United States in 1995. Source of data is the NADP. From Langmuir (1997).

33. Figure 8-22. Generalized isoconcentration contours for NO 3 - (in mg L -1 ) for atmospheric precipitation over the contiguous United States in 1995. Source of data is the NADP. From Langmuir (1997).

35. Figure 8-23. Average pH for precipitation in 1955-1956 and 1972-1973 for the northeastern United States and Canada and in 1980 for the contiguous United States and Canada. From Langmuir (1997).

36. Figure 8-24. Sources of atmospheric particulates. Arrows with dashed lines indicate that there is a gaseous emission associated with the source.

38. Figure 2-25. Theoretical two- component logarithmic plots for (a) crustal/marine and (b) crustal/pollution components. From Rahn (1999).

39. Figure 8-C3-1. Carbon in terrestrial U.S. carbon reservoirs (10 15 g C), fluxes between carbon reservoirs (10 15 g y -1 ), and exchanges between these reservoirs and the atmosphere (  ) during the 1980s (10 15 g y -1 ). From “The U.S. carbon budget: contributions from land use change” by R. A. Houghton, J. L. Hackler and K. T. Lawrence in SCIENCE, 1999, #285, pp. 574-578. Copyright 1999 American Association for the Advancement of Science. Reprinted with permission.

40. Figure 8-C4-1. N 2 O measurements obtained in different studies. The shaded band is the calculated 1  EUROCORE and GRIP mean values. Flückiger et al. (1999).

41. Figure 8-C4-2. GRIP N 2 O, CH 4, and  18 O for the last glacial-interglacial transition. The dark shading represents the Younger Dryas (from 12,700 to 11,600 years before present). During the Younger Dryas there is a significant decrease in N 2 O and CH 4 concentrations corresponding temperature drop. From Flückiger et al. (1999). Figure 8-C4-3. GRIP N 2 O, CH 4, and  18 O variations for the Dansgaard-Oeschger event 8 (36,500 to 33,500 years before present), a time of rapid climate change. The solid diamonds show N 2 O measurements for the Byrd core from Antarctica. From Flückiger et al. (1999).

42. Figure 8-C5-1. Carbon isotope (A) and oxygen isotope (B) data for two deep- sea sediment cores that cross the boundary representing an abrupt episode of global warming. Acarinina praepentacamerata and Subbotina are planktonic species of foraminifera and Nuttallides turempyi is a benthic foraminifera. The similarity in the carbon isotope values for all three species indicates that carbon was well mixed in the oceans. Small letters denote various events during the temperature excursion (see text). From “Mechanisms of climate warming at the end of the Paleocene” by S. Bains, R. M. Corfield and R. D. Norris in SCIENCE, 1999, #285, pp. 724-727. Copyright 1999 American Association for the Advancement of Science.

43. Figure 8-C6-2. Individual temperature records from microsampled congrid otoliths. Larger seasonal temperature variations are found for the early Oligocene compared to the late Eocene. From Ivany et al. (2000). Figure 8-C6-1. Mean  18 O values and calculated temperatures for otoliths from the middle Eocene to the Oligocene. Error bars are 1 standard deviation around the mean. From Ivany et al. (2000).

44. Figure 8-C7-1. (a) Calculated distribution of aqueous species versus pH. (b)  11 B values for two aqueous boron species versus pH. Note that modern carbonates plot on the B(OH) 4 - curve at pH = 8.2 (the modern ocean), indicating that this species is selectively incorporated into carbonates. From Hemming and Hanson (1992). Figure 8-C7-2. Surface seawater pCO 2 versus  CO 2 based on various estimates of sea-surface pH. From “Middle Eocene seawater pH and atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations” by P. N. Pearson and M. R. Palmer in SCIENCE, 1999, #284, pp. 1824-1826. Copyright 1999 American Association for the Advancement of Science. Reprinted with permission.

45. Figure 8-C9-1. Variations in acidity and excess sulfate in ice cores. From Simöes and Zagorodnov, 2001.

46. Figure 8-C13-1. Plot of 208 Pb/ 206 Pb versus 206 Pb/ 207 Pb ratios for various materials. The samples fall on a straight line, suggesting that the various materials represent simple mixtures of the gasoline and coal end members. From Åberg et al. (1999).