2.  People’s behaviors are largely the result of their experiences with environmental stimuli. › The “writing” of our behavior is called conditioning.  Learning is the relationships among stimuli and responses.  Learning involves a behavior change. › Note that this does not include mental events.  Learning is most likely to occur when the stimuli and response occur contiguously.  Most species learn in a similar manner. Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

3.  A form of learning in which a new involuntary response is acquired due to two stimuli being presented simultaneously  Changes in our behavior resulting from an association made between thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviors and an event or emotional state Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

4.  Certain stimuli can elicit a reflexive (innate and unlearned) response.  The reflexive stimulus is called the UCS (unconditioned stimulus) and elicits an unconditioned response (UCR). › Air puff (UCS) produces an eye blink (UCR).  In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the UCS.  Eventually, the NS elicits a response similar to the UCR. › The NS is a conditioned stimulus (CS). › Reponse is now a conditioned response (CR). Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

5.  People sometimes respond emotionally to fairly “neutral” stimuli.  When a stimulus is associated with something that makes us fearful, we may begin feeling fearful of the stimulus itself. Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

6.  How is classical conditioning applicable to classroom conditions?  When students encounter unpleasant stimuli in school, they may dislike school in general. › A mean teacher may create a dislike for the subject. › Frequently failing tests may cause a student to hate the subject. Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

7.  Generalization › A stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus elicits a response.  Discrimination › Only the conditioned stimulus elicits a response.  Extinction › The conditioned response gradually disappears.  However, we can experience spontaneous recovery. Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

8.  This theory proposes that we learn something (or do something) because the consequences are so desirable that we are inclined to do the behavior again. › Reinforcement  OR behaviors can be unlearned (or stopped) because the consequences are such that we are inclined to NOT do the behavior again. › Punishment Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

9.  The purpose of reinforcement is to increase the likelihood that a behavior will occur again (or occur to begin with).  The purpose of punishment is to decrease the likelihood that a behavior will occur again.  Both can be given in a positive or negative form. Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

10.  Positive means a stimulus is added. › Positive reinforcement: Something pleasurable is added to increase the occurrence of the behavior.  Money for grades, treat for a puppy who went potty outside  Negative means a stimulus is removed. › Negative reinforcement: Something unpleasant is removed to increase the occurrence of the behavior.  Chris doesn’t have to clean the garage if he mows the lawn today; the students don’t have to take the final if they have perfect attendance Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

11.  Specify the desired behavior at the beginning  Identify consequences that are truly reinforcing  Consider using group contingency when reinforcing behavior in a large group  Make response- consequences contingencies explicit  Make sure students have an opportunity to earn public reinforcement  Be consistent  Continuously monitor student progress Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

12.  Studies show that reinforcement has longer lasting effects on behavioral changes than does punishment.  Punishment leads to immediate compliance, but often leads to: › Ability to avoid being caught › Negative associations with punisher › Only temporary behavior changes  Reinforcement teaches what is expected; punishment only teaches what is not. › Of punishment, removal works best Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

13.  Reinforcement can be continuous or intermittent.  Continuous is best to start a new behavior, then move on to intermittent reinforcement.  Schedules are either based on time (interval) or on behaviors (ratio). › Can be fixed or variable Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

14.  Fixed interval: Set amount of time will pass before next reinforcement.  Variable interval: Average amount of time will pass before next reinforcement.  Fixed ratio: Set amount of behaviors will occur before next reinforcement.  Variable ratio: Average amount of behaviors will occur before next reinforcement. Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

15.  Shaping: Process of reinforcing every behavior that is closer to the desired behavior › We use shaping to teach music. › Even “Bs” and “Cs” are a form of shaping. › Shaping helps to get a new behavior started. Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

16.  Apply extinction › Do not reinforce undesirable behaviors  Cue students when they are engaged in inappropriate behaviors › Use body language, eye contact, stand by them, brief verbal cue  Reinforce an incompatible behavior  Use punishment wisely, appropriately, and humanely Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

17.  Presentation punishment › Something unpleasant is added to decrease the occurrence of the behavior.  Spanking for smarting off; a failing grade for not studying  Removal punishment › Something pleasant is removed to decrease the occurrence of the behavior.  Grounded from the phone for being late; removal of recess privileges for being too loud in class Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

18.  Promote intrinsic reinforcement › Don’t just reinforce test or homework scores—reinforce effort and interest  Use intermittent reinforcement › More resistant to extinction Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

19.  Three common approaches: › Applied behavioral analysis (behavior modification)  Systematic application of principles of behaviorism › Functional Analysis  Focuses on changing response-reinforcement contingencies › Positive behavioral support  Identifying purposes of undesirable behaviors and providing alternative behaviors Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

20.  Attempts at changing only behaviors may ignore cognitive factors interfering with learning.  Reinforcement for academic tasks may encourage students to do things quickly rather than well.  Extrinsic reinforcement of an activity that students already find intrinsically reinforcing may undermine student interest in the task itself. Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

21.  Reinforcement is critically important in determining learning and behavior.  Punishment is not very effective for permanently eliminating undesirable behavior.  Interest and positive feelings are conducive to learning.  Repetition without reinforcement does not enhance learning. Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.