1. SQL Performance and Optimization l SQL Overview l Performance Tuning Process l SQL-Tuning –EXPLAIN PLANs –Tuning Tools –Optimizing Table Scans –Optimizing Indexes –Optimizing Joins and Subqueries –Optimizing Sorting and Grouping

2. SQL Overview –Everything is in Tables –SQL is Non-procedural –Integrity –Normalization –Types of SQL Statements Set Operations Aggregates and Vector Aggregates Joins Subqueries –Views –Indexes –How SQL Queries Are Processed

3. Everything is in Tables Relations are composed of tuples and attributes. = Files are composed of records and fields. = Tables are composed of rows and columns. l Each row in a table describes one occurrence of an entity. Each column describes one characteristic, or attribute, of the entity. A set of related tables forms a database. l A database is even managed and secured through tables (often referred to as user tables and system tables).

4. SQL is Non-Procedural l SQL was designed specifically to be a language that describes what data is wanted, but not how to physically get at that data. That is left up to the database server. l In order to do SQL-tuning, one must understand that the computer must still use sequential, procedural steps to get that data.

5. Integrity l Entity Integrity –To do with database design. Specifies that no primary key be allowed to have a null value. l Relational Integrity –Means pieces of information repeated in more than one table are consistent. l Data Integrity –To do with transaction control, maintaining the ACID properties of data, ensuring that data doesn’t get lost or corrupted.

6. Normalization l Means protection of data integrity by avoiding duplicate data. l Five normal forms Each row and column intersection has one and only one value. Every non-key column must depend on the entire primary key. No non-key column must depend on another non-key column. No one-to-many relationship between primary key columns and non-key columns. Breaks tables into the smallest pieces possible in order to eliminate all redundancy. –Most designers stick with 3rd or 4th normal form.

7. Types of SQL Statements l DDL - Data definition language –CREATE TABLE/INDEX/VIEW, etc. l DML - Data manipulation language –UPDATE/INSERT/DELETE l Data administration or data control statements –ALTER SESSION, GRANT ROLE, etc. l Query –SELECT. Sets, Aggregates, Joins and Subqueries

8. Set Operations l UNION –Combines similar result sets from two tables, eliminating duplicate rows. l UNION ALL –Does not eliminate duplicates, does no sorting l MINUS –Returns all rows in the first result set which are not in the second set. l INTERSECT –Returns only the rows which appear in both sets.

9. Aggregate Operations l Scalar Aggregates allow summary information to be generated: AVG, SUM, COUNT, MAX, MIN, STDDEV l When used with GROUP BY and HAVING, they become Vector Aggregates

10. Joins l Inner Join –Most common, like service order to component, joined on service order number. l Theta Join –Uses other than = to join, like >, BETWEEN, and != l Outer Join –Allows rows from the table being outer-joined to be included in the result even if they have no match in the first table or result set. l “Anti-Join” –Gets all rows from a table which no not have a match in the first table or result set. l Self Join –A table is joined to itself, must use aliases to work properly.

11. Subqueries l A SQL statement within another. May occur in SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE or INSERT. l May make use of IN, EXISTS or regular comparison operators like = and >. l A Correlated Subquery is one in which the subquery refers to values in the parent query. –Can be used where a join cannot, like in UPDATE, INSERT and DELETE.

12. Views l Created with a SELECT statement, sometimes highly complex. l Is not a table, but a “stored query” or “virtual table” l Used to focus, simplify and customize user’s perception of the database. l May also be used to provide security mechanism around table access.

13. Indexes l Just like an index in a book: a key value (like “Battle of Waterloo”) associated with the physical location (like vol 14, page 1023). It is a key composed of one or more columns with the physical location, called ROWID, stored alongside it. l Lots with OLAP systems, fewer with OLTP systems. l Unique, Primary, Foreign, Clustered l Composite, Unique, Function-based l B-Tree, Bitmap

14. How SQL Queries Are Processed l Steps of parsing, executing and fetching. l Fetches the row(s) using: –Full table scan, where every row is read into memory –Using and index lookup l Joins the results set(s) with: –Sort merge join –Nested loops join –Hash join l Orders the results set(s)

15. Performance Tuning Process l Goal is to give users what they want, everything else is peripheral. l Performance must be in minds of all at every stage. l Earlier the less costly and most beneficial. l We are at the Tune SQL and Tune Access Path points in the performance tuning process. (cont’d)

16. Performance Tuning Process l Gather table, index and data volume information. l Build reference and transaction tables; if too large, use 10 - 25% sample, ideally use full or 50%. l Run query through optimization tools. –Decide if optimized. If not reword SQL, add/change indexes, change table structure, use PL/SQL shortcuts, use Hints or back way up to design and logical model. l Calculate production execution time, if good stop. If not, start at the top of this list again.

17. SQL-Tuning l In order to do any SQL-Tuning several things must happen first: –Understand SQL in general –Understand how your database processes and executes its SQL –Understand how to use the various optimization tools available to you. –Understand your options for improving performance.

18. EXPLAIN PLANS l Tells us the paths and steps Oracle will take to get the requested result set. l Rules for reading: –The more heavily indented an access path is, the earlier it is executed. –If two steps are indented at the same level, the uppermost statement is executed first. However, one access path may be composed of more than one step. The uppermost’s child step(s) will then be executed first.

19. Tuning Tools l Oracle EXPLAIN PLAN l Oracle AUTOTRACE l Oracle SQL_TRACE and tkprof l SQL-Station, Plan Analyzer, SQLab

20. Table Scan vs. Index Lookup l Index lookup when small subset (one row or less than 10 - 20% of the rows) is desired. l Full scan when large subset or all rows is desired.

21. Optimizing Table Scans l Reduce number of blocks to be scanned –Lower high water mark –Squeeze more into each block, reducing PCTFREE and increasing PCTUSED. –Moving large infrequently accessed columns to separate sub-table, join by key. –Using the caching mechanism

22. Optimizing Indexes l Avoid accidental full table scans l Analyze the tables/columns regularly l Help Oracle determine the right path with Hints l Create new indexes l Modify concatenated indices l Make use of histograms l Use alternative techniques, like hash clustering l Range scans, LIKE, Index Merges, tkprof

23. Optimizing Joins and Subqueries l Understand when Nested Loops vs. Sort Merge/Hash joins are appropriate. l When in doubt, use hints to test each route. l Make sure driving table is the most selective l If subquery (IN, EXISTS, hierarchical), make sure columns after can be resolved by index lookup alone if possible

24. Optimizing Sorting and Grouping l Be aware of when sorting is performed (GROUP BY, ORDER BY, DISTINCT, UNION, INTERSECT, MINUS). Sorting is expensive, eliminate if possible. l COUNT(*) vs. COUNT(indexed_unique_column) l MAX/MIN tricks l UNION vs. UNION ALL

25. Tales from the Front Line