1. Chapter 12 Getting the Project Started Winston Jackson and Norine Verberg Methods: Doing Social Research, 4e

2. 12-2© 2007 Pearson Education Canada Choosing a Problem, a Design, and Variables Doing research involves making a series of consecutive decisions including: 1. Choosing a problem 2. Choosing a design 3. Determining the precise questions 4. Reviewing the literature 5. Using the Internet and other online sources 6. Choosing variables

3. 12-3© 2007 Pearson Education Canada 1. Choosing a Problem The single most important consideration in choosing a topic is genuine interest! Possible topics may be derived from: A. Current issue subject of public debate, concern B. Variation in dependent variable e.g., What factors influence grade performance? C. Testing a theory examine a relationship between variables predicted by theory but which is not obvious to common sense

4. 12-4© 2007 Pearson Education Canada 1. Choosing a Problem (cont’d) D. Testing partial theories Testing alternative explanations for a well- established relationship E. Testing folk wisdom Study a taken-for-granted belief (e.g., sport teams win more often on home ice/stadium) F. Applied research Research that has immediate relevance to the group being studies G. Replication study

5. 12-5© 2007 Pearson Education Canada 2. Choosing a Design Many factors influence choice of design The nature of the research question typically determines which design is most appropriate There are other pragmatic considerations too Amount of time, research funds, kind of respondents available to researcher

6. 12-6© 2007 Pearson Education Canada 2. Choosing a Design (cont’d) Step 1: What have others done? Step 2: Consider alternatives If you face problems related to time, ethics approval, your technical abilities, availability of funding, assistants Step 3: Review the chapter that introduces the type of design tentatively selected Step 4: Be prepared to reconsider the research design used

7. 12-7© 2007 Pearson Education Canada 3. Determining the Precise Questions Articulate what you want to investigate – define your question precisely A project cannot address all possible questions on a topic The project will become more precise as the researcher becomes familiar with the literature and has a better sense of practical limitations It is normal to go through a process of narrowing down the topic and specifying the hypotheses With time, the project will take shape

8. 12-8© 2007 Pearson Education Canada 4. Reviewing the Literature Researchers review the literature to get a sense of the scientific knowledge about the topic Accessing relevant literature Ask researchers who work in the area for ideas on where to get information Check with reference librarian Check books and textbooks for leads Check journals that publish work in the area Use Internet and online sources

9. 12-9© 2007 Pearson Education Canada 4. Reviewing the Literature (cont’d) Goals of the literature review include: Identifying consensus among researchers Noting inconsistencies among researchers Identifying variables that others have found to be relevant Identifying areas that could contribute to new understandings Seeing how others have made connections to theory Seeing how others have measured variables and analyzed data

10. 12-10© 2007 Pearson Education Canada 5. Using the Internet and Other Online Sources Increasingly researchers are using the Internet and online sources Can conduct searches for papers and books on your topic Most library homepages provide links to online search engines Reference librarians are a valuable resource Many journals provide full-text articles online Many are free to public; some free to members

11. 12-11© 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6. Choosing Variables Variables are defined as concepts that we intend to measure Variables may be identified by: Reviewing the research literature Applying relevant theoretical models (variables implied by the theory) Examining questionnaires for ideas Developing causal models and figuring out what control variables might be relevant Your own thought on the matter

12. 12-12© 2007 Pearson Education Canada Developing Causal Models A causal model is a graphic representation of proposed interconnections between variables encourages clarity and accuracy Types of models 1. Two-variable model 2. Three-variable model 3. Multivariate models

13. 12-13© 2007 Pearson Education Canada Two-Variable Models Use X/Y notation for independent (cause) and dependent (effect) variables Use greater ( > ) and less than ( < ) to indicate the direction of the relationship Use arrow to indicate causal direction Arrow points to dependent variable > X  > Y e.g., The greater the participation in social activities (X), the greater the self-esteem (Y)

14. 12-14© 2007 Pearson Education Canada Three-Variable Models Involves the introduction of three additional types of variables A. Intervening variables B. Source of spuriousness variables C. Antecedent variables

15. 12-15© 2007 Pearson Education Canada Three-Variable Models: An Intervening Variable Model An intervening variable (I) is a variable that links an independent variable (X) to a dependent variable (Y) An intervening variable model indicates the way I influences how X and Y are related It specifies that a change in X causes a change in I, which in turn causes a change in Y. The greater the X, the greater the I, the lower the Y

16. 12-16© 2007 Pearson Education Canada Intervening Variable Model (cont’d) In this diagram, three alternative explanations are suggested for the connection between X and Y

17. 12-17© 2007 Pearson Education Canada Three-Variable Models: A Source of Spuriousness Model A source of spuriousness model proposes that the relationship between X and Y may be explained by a third factor (called a source of spuriousness (S/S) variable) It suggests that although X and Y are related, the relationship may be non-causal The relationship exists because a third variable (i.e., a source of spuriousness variable) influences both X and Y

18. 12-18© 2007 Pearson Education Canada Three-Variable Models: An Antecedent Variable Model An antecedent variable model that proposes that an antecedent variable (A) causes variation in the independent variable (X), which, in turn, influences the dependent variable (Y) “A” is causally prior to both the independent and dependent variables Thus, it converts the independent variable into an intervening variable

19. 12-19© 2007 Pearson Education Canada Multivariate Models Models that use numerous variables are known as multivariate models Two main types A. Candidate variable model B. Path models

20. 12-20© 2007 Pearson Education Canada Multivariate Models: Candidate Variable Model A candidate variable model proposes several independent variables as possible causes of variation in the dependent variable See Figure 12.1 (next slide) The variables on the left side of the diagram are the independent variables The arrows indicate the direction of the relationships

21. 12-21© 2007 Pearson Education Canada Figure 12.1 Predicting Positive Attitudes Toward the Elderly

22. 12-22© 2007 Pearson Education Canada Multivariate Models: Path Models A path model is a graphic representation of a complex set of proposed interrelationships among variables Shown in Figure 12.2 (next slide) and Box 2.4 The researcher specifies the nature of the relationship among the independent and dependent variables Considered more complex modelling

23. 12-23© 2007 Pearson Education Canada Figure 12.2 Interrelationship of Major Dependent Variables

24. 12-24© 2007 Pearson Education Canada Other Considerations 1. Stating hypotheses Good diagrams can replace formal hypotheses statements Use arrows to show direction of relationship (i.e., > and < symbols ) 2. Specifying methods of analysis Knowing method of analysis in advance will guide the way in which variables are measured (nominal vs. ratio level)

25. 12-25© 2007 Pearson Education Canada Specifying Hypotheses, Procedures of Analysis Once the hypotheses have been specified, one proposes the method of analysis to be used Researchers are strongly discouraged from deviating from proposed hypotheses and procedures (“hunting for findings”; see Chapter 10) renders statistical tests meaningless

26. 12-26© 2007 Pearson Education Canada How to Know When You Are Ready to Start the Project Complete a research proposal that includes: a problem statement a literature review a methodology section Then, use Table 12.2, “Project Initiation Check List” (page 345), to see if you have all the necessary written materials, permissions, instruments, and equipment in place