1. Transitions in Power: The 18 th Century in South ASia

2. What do we mean by ‘decline?’ The use of this word in the Mughal context has meant various things –Lesser power in politics –Less territory under direct political control –Moral turpitude and “decadence” –Lack of cultural “vigor” As is clear some of these terms are vague and often ahistorical or reveal cultural/ideological biases

3. Problems with Cultural Assumptions of Decline Reading moral assumptions into older fashion trends/economic data is often ahistorical See painting of Nawab Wajib-ud Daula of Awadh on the right

4. Two theories of the 18 th Century Cambridge School—Bayly and P. J. Marshall –The European companies were only successful due to Indian assistance and remained dependent on it –18 th Century saw a quick economic recovery in most areas and greater social mobility Aligarh School—Irfan Habib, M. Athar Ali –Mughal decline was absolute—seen through a marxist class conflict –18 th century was a dark chaotic period

5. Why are these theories so different? Sources –Aligarh (Mughal court documents, cambridge (documents related to trade and travel) Ideological underpinnings –Aligarh dominated by mostly marxist and Nationalist historians (comm. To class equity)—Cambridge by historians attempting to remove a colonialist bias— (recover Indian voices, but dependent on colonial records) Geographical focus is different Economic figures rely on different numbers

6. Are there other alternatives? Yes, large numbers of independent studies on the successor states of Awadh, Hyderabad, Bengal, Sikhs, and Marathas These historians are mostly Indian academics from Delhi University and Jawaharlal Nehru University; others are from America and the Netherlands These studies support different parts of each view

7. Contextualizing Mughal Decline In absolute terms Mughal political authority and territory did diminish after 1712 The economy in most areas, however, recovered quickly and trade increased Successor states quickly organized control over formerly Mughal areas and were much more reliant on zamindari groups, bankers, and “service groups” So parts of both the Aligarh and Cambridge school theories are accurate

8. Awadh Rich agriculture area Bhumihar brahmins, lesser Rajputs aid the Nawabs Revenue collection shifts to Ijara forms State supports the evolution of urdu literary arts and adapts mughal court rituals

9. Bengal New “nawab” continues to sent tribute to Mughals Administration centralizes Brisk trade in cloth, opium, saltpeter Major european and asia trading groups move there

10. Bengal “chintzes” and “indiennes”

11. Common Aspects of Successor States Although Mughal cultural norms were adapted, administration was streamlined Nawabs combined the powers of governors and military commandments Local service groups and merchants bid on revenue collection Trade remained an important part of revenue: Regional and land-based trade much more important than sea trade

12. How was trade linked to Politics? New states relied on traders to supply critical goods, provide capital for expansion, bid on ijara contracts Financiers often served as bankers to nawabs and regional rulers Could move vast sums of money safely through the use of hundis As military fiscalism grew, could provide loans at critical times State rewarded groups by granting exclusive contracts to trade in certain commodities or by lowering tariffs/duties

13. How voluminous was this trade? The most recent research shows a significant increase in trade until 1760 Increased bullion flows to regional markets around Bengal, Bombay, Madras European trade was rising, but more importantly regional trade was much more important –Overland horse trade alone worth three times the export value of English and Dutch trade in Bengal

14. European centers Commodity trade was very competitive, competition between the Dutch, English, and French was particularly fierce Each company had forts, agents, ships, and important contracts with regional rulers Reliance on local merchants and agents was crucial

15. English Company in Madras

16. The picture after 1760 These studies indicate a very different picture before and after 1760 Once the British EIC captured Bengal it attempted to eliminate its political and economic rivals British power expanded very slowly—it would be another half century of consolidation before much of South Asia was under control

17. Important points to remember Sources show a quickly changing set of conditions after 1712 Most areas recover in terms of economic and political stability, but Delhi and Punjab would continue to experience some hardship Successor states had different approaches to administration and empowered local elite groups and castes Growing trade also meant that social mobility was increasingly visible for merchants Status of peasants in this new set up poorly understood European companies remain dependent on local agents and political powers until the 1760s, their power is limited