1. Implicit Learning processes in Children Annie VINTER L.E.A.D/CNRS University of Bourgogne

2. Implicit learning   1. Definition of implicit learning   2. How to study this learning phenomenon in laboratory settings?   3. A developmental approach   4. About the experiments currently in progress…   5. Conclusion: a useful learning mode?

3. Learning ? Intentionally, under the supervision of a « teacher »: Without intention, independently of any « teacher »: Explicit Learning (or conscious) Implicit Learning (or unconscious)

4. Implicit learning   1. Definition.

5. Implicit Learning ?   Designates the type of learning which underlies all the capacities that people acquire spontaneously, without the help of any teacher or supervisor. For instance, *mother tongue *basic knowledge on the world’s physical laws * Major part of motor behaviors * Part of social behaviors * Some aspects of written language * Some knowledge on music

6. Implicit Learning ?   When an individual’s behavior becomes sensitive to the structural features of a situation which occurs repeatedly, without this sensibility being due to an intentional use of explicit knowledge on the situation. * 1. Occurs independently of any intention to learn, each time we are repeatedly confronted with situations that present stable regularities. * 2. The direct interactions between the learner and the situation provoke a progressive and adapted transformation of his behavior, in a way that « resonates » with the relevant characteristics of the situation.

7. Implicit learning ? A comment: What is crucial is to define what are the « relevant characteristics » or the « structural features » or the « regularities » of the situation: what does the individual really learn implicitly in such a condition ?

8. Implicit Learning ? As a matter of fact, it is generally very difficult to determine what is learned implicitly, above all in the natural learning situations (daily life conditions). There are always several possibilities: - Abstraction (unconscious) of rules? - Memorisation of similar cases or events?

9. Implicit Learning ? That’s one of the reason why the study of these implicit learning processes is simpler to carry out in laboratory situations (using artificial paradigms).

10. Implicit learning   2. How to study this learning phenomenon

11. Laboratory (experimental) situations They constitute miniature situations of natural situations: the duration of learning is drastically shorter (usually, less than 1 hour); the complexity of the material to learn is much reduced. In these situations, the structure of the material processed by the subjects is artificially built by the experimenter. Furthermore, to mimick a learning condition without any intention to learn, the subjects are never informed on the structure of the situation they are confronted with.

12. Numerous experimental paradigms   Task of serial reaction times (SRT): Nissen & Bullemer, 1987….   Task of artificial grammar: Reber, 1967….  Task of Kushner et al. (1991)  Task of incidental covariations  Task of incidental covariations: Lewicki, 1986...   Control of dynamic informatical systems : Berry & Broadbent, 1984.  And others …

13. The classical paradigms   The Serial Reaction Times paradigm (SRT): Nissen & Bullemer, 1987.

14. … DCDABDBDACDBADCACABDACBDACDBADCABACDA… Exemple: Serial Reaction Times A B C D

15. The mean reaction times associated to the repeated sequence become significantly faster than those associated to the random sequences, as if the subjects had learned the regularity of the sequence. Simultaneoulsy, the subjects are unable to say anything about the repeated sequence. SRT: what do we observe ?

16. The classical paradigms   The Serial Reaction Times paradigm (SRT): Nissen & Bullemer, 1987.   The Artificial Grammar Paradigm: Reber, 1976.

17. Grammar used in Peigneux, Meulemans, Van der Linden, & Petit, 1999). IN M X M V R X V V M R R T OUT X R Artificial Grammar

18. * Study phase MXR MVRVM VMRMXTR VXVRMXT MVXTR …… * Test phase: Is the item grammatical or not ? VXV ? MXTR ? VRMTX ? ……

19. While the subjects have the feeling that they respond randomly, they reply more often « grammatical » to an unseen grammatical item, and « non-grammatical » to a randomly built item, as if they had learned some of the rules of the grammar used to generate the items seen during the learning phase. The subjects are unable to say anything about the rules. Artificial Grammar

20.   Step 1: The circles light up one by one in immediate succession, forming a series of 5 events (e.g., the series : B C B A C )   Step 2: The subject has to predict which will be the 6th lighted circle (A, B or C ?).   Step 3: The correct response is provided in feedback   Step 4: Next trial (step 1). A CB Task of Kushner, Cleeremans & Reber (1991)

26. ????

27. correct

28.   Positions 1, 3 and 5: random.   Positions 2 and 4: random, excluding repetition   Position of the 6th circle depends on positions 2&4. A C B B C B A C C Results :  33% (random guess) at beginning ↦ ↦ ↦ 45% (> random) at the end  Subjects are unable to verbalize anything about the rules. ➠ if 2&4 clockwise, then 6th = B ➠ if 2&4 counterclockwise, then 6th=C ➠ if 2=4, then 6th = A

29. Implicit learning   3. A developmental approach

30. Implicit Learning and Development è Implicit learning processes are surely at the origin of various new behavioral acquisitions in the course of development è few experimental studies, but a strong postulate (Reber): independency of these processes in relation to age.  è some studies with babies (experiments on language or on vision) demonstrate the early efficacy of these processes; è some studies with children, mainly between 6 and 11 years (6 with SRT, 2 avec covariations, 3 avec AG). è a strong tendency to confirm Reber’s postulate.

31. Our own experimental paradigm Our own experimental paradigm We aimed at studying the action of unconscious influences on learning, using the same task, through a large range of ages and in children with mental retardation. è We selected a drawing task of geometrical figures. This task is naturally structured by a regularity : the « start-rotation principle (SRP)» described by Van Sommers, 1984. our idea was to manipulate this natural regularity without the subject knowing it.

32. The « Start-Rotation Principle » è It structures the graphic production of closed geometrical figures. t covariation between the starting point and the movement’s direction t around 70% of our spontaneous production. t it escapes to a strong decisional control for most subjects è Illustration for circle drawing: 11 5

33. The performed experimental manipulation: The performed experimental manipulation: è scope: through a repeated practice, we tried to lead the subjects to reverse the principle, without them knowing it : i.e. we tried to lead them to learn to associate a clockwise rotation with a top starting point on the one hand, and a counterclockwise rotation with a bottom starting point on the other hand. Task for the subjects: We said them that we wanted to study their degree of expertise in graphic activity, asking them to be both fast and accurate when they traced over geometrical figures.

34. The drawing task We designed 3 groups of learning: - Learning with a SRP at 80% - Learning with a SRP at 20% : group of interest - Control group (free tracing over figures) TEST: identical for all subjects, tracing with only the starting locations imposed We told them that we introduced variability in their movements by imposing different starting locations and movement directions.

35. The « rational » of the test (after learning): The « rational » of the test (after learning):   If the practice during the learning phase has an impact, the subjects should, in test, behave differently as a function of their initial learning group: their respect for the SRP at test should reflect their learning condition. è consequently, the group trained at 20% should respect the SRP significantly less than the control group, or than the group trained at 80%.

36. This task is an implicit learning task: This task is an implicit learning task:   Neutrality of the instructions: The subject’s attention was oriented on the requested accuracy and speed of tracing, and he was ignorant with respect to the regularity present in the task (SRP at 80% or 20%).   Neutrality of the measured behavior: The behavior that the experimenter tried to modify without the subject knowing it (reversing the SRP) was different from the behavior that the subject tried to perform at a conscious level (being good at tracing) è Only unconscious processes may lead subjects to modify their spontaneous practice.

37. Our experiments using this paradigm : Our experiments using this paradigm : è Vinter & Perruchet, 2000: Testing if the SRP can be incidentally reversed through appropriate practice, testing the age-independency postulate and whether the resulting implicit learning is maintained in time. è Vinter & Perruchet, 2003 : Testing if the motor component play a major role in the type of implicit learning involved in our tracing task. è Vinter & Detable, 2003 : Testing the IQ-independency postulate (Reber), comparing typically developing children with intellectually impaired children. è Detable & Vinter, 2004, 2006 : Testing the maintain, in time, of an implicit learning in intellectually disabled children, and the possibility of transfert of this learning in a similar task. è Vinter & Detable, in revision : Comparing the effects of an explicit and implicit learning in children with or without intellectual retardation.

38. Immediate Test: 4-10 years and adults

39. A question…. A question…. t Do these implicit learning processes keep their efficacy in time ? è Introducing a delay between the learning phase and the testing phase

40. Differed test: children 4-10 yrs and adults.

41. Our experiments using this paradigm : Our experiments using this paradigm : è Vinter & Perruchet, 2000: Testing if the SRP can be incidentally reversed through appropriate practice, testing the age-independency postulate and whether the resulting implicit learning is maintained in time. è Vinter & Perruchet, 2003 : Testing if the motor component play a major role in the type of implicit learning involved in our tracing task. è Vinter & Detable, 2003 : Testing the IQ-independency postulate (Reber), comparing typically developing children with intellectually impaired children. è Detable & Vinter, 2004, 2006 : Testing the maintain, in time, of an implicit learning in intellectually disabled children, and the possibility of transfert of this learning in a similar task. è Vinter & Detable, in revision : Comparing the effects of an explicit and implicit learning in children with or without intellectual retardation.

42. A question…. t Would the behavioural modifications induced in our task be elicited even if we suppress the motor component, asking subjects to look at figures being traced on a computer screen? è Subjects showed figures traced on the screen, applying the SRP either at 20% or at 80%.

43. Perceptual learning: 6-10 years and adults.

44. Our experiments using this paradigm : Our experiments using this paradigm : è Vinter & Perruchet, 2000: Testing if the SRP can be incidentally reversed through appropriate practice, testing the age-independency postulate and whether the resulting implicit learning is maintained in time. è Vinter & Perruchet, 2003 : Testing if the motor component play a major role in the type of implicit learning involved in our tracing task. è Vinter & Detable, 2003 : Testing the IQ-independency postulate (Reber), comparing typically developing children with intellectually impaired children. è Detable & Vinter, 2004, 2006 : Testing the maintain, in time, of an implicit learning in intellectually disabled children, and the possibility of transfert of this learning in a similar task. è Vinter & Detable, in revision : Comparing the effects of an explicit and implicit learning in children with or without intellectual retardation.

45. A question…. t We slightly modified our tracing task so that low-IQ children could be studied: - only a training at 20% with pre-test, training and post-test. - only circles.

46. Children/Adolescents with mental retardation

47. Discussion Discussion  Efficacy of these implicit learning processes and independency from age and IQ.  These processes lead always to modify behavior such that it reflects the structural characteristics or regularities of a situation, without the subject knowing it.  The resistance of this phenomenon through age does not involve  The resistance of this phenomenon through age does not involve that no differences between ages can be shown. Learning implicitly is surely possible at all ages during development, from infancy to the old age, but according to the complexity of the situations, it also may be more or less easy to elicit, more or less efficace.

48. Implicit learning   4. About an experiment currently in progress…

49. Our current direction of research  Our tracing task is a simple task, structured by a single covariation. This simplicity could explain why we did not observe any age-related differences in our experiments.  we use the artificial grammar paradigm, with colors as elements (instead of letters). The grammar withe colors is used to build flags.  We are also trying to test specific hypotheses coming from different theoretical models of implicit learning.

50. Artificial grammar   with colors

51. The models of implicit learning  Abstraction of rules (Reber, 1976):  existence of a highly sophisticated unconscious processor devoted to rules’ abstraction.  existence of a highly sophisticated unconscious processor devoted to rules’ abstraction.  Learning exemplars (Brooks, 1978):  Subjects would memorize the items presented during the learning phase and would make grammaticality judgments on the basis of the similarity between the items seen during learning and the items seen at test.  Subjects would memorize the items presented during the learning phase and would make grammaticality judgments on the basis of the similarity between the items seen during learning and the items seen at test.  Learning fragments (Perruchet, 1994):  Subjects would memorize fragments of items, because attentional processes imply a natural segmentation of the presented information.  Subjects would memorize fragments of items, because attentional processes imply a natural segmentation of the presented information.  Formation of cognitive units : SOC (Perruchet&Vinter, 2002):  Subjects build cognitive units from associations between primitives that enter together in the conscious focus.  Subjects build cognitive units from associations between primitives that enter together in the conscious focus.

52. Artificial grammar   with colors

53. A study in progress (PhD of A. Witt)   Illustration of the artificial grammar used (a grammar that makes possible the generation of salient regularities: doublets and symmetries).

54. Grammatical items : frequent doublets Grammatical items: frequent symmetries Series of random items

55. Exposition to the flags during the learning phase.

56. Testing phase

57. Hypotheses ? 1. Expected differences between the 3 groups: - can we expect that the group confronted with the “doublets’ set” produces more grammatical doublets in test than the 2 other groups, and that the group confronted with the “symmetries’ set” produces more grammatical symmetries in test than the other groups ?

58. Differences between groups ? Differences between groups ? The abstractionnist position  predicts an absence of differences between the « doublets » and the « symmetries » groups: the grammar is identical, all the rules are present in the items observed during learning. A relative independency exists between the impact of learning and the specific set of grammatical items that are actually shown to the subjects.  predicts an absence of differences between the « doublets » and the « symmetries » groups: the grammar is identical, all the rules are present in the items observed during learning. A relative independency exists between the impact of learning and the specific set of grammatical items that are actually shown to the subjects. The other positions  they all predict a relationship between the items shown to subjects and the learning effect: memorization of the seen exemplars, of fragments or of salient units from these exemplars.  they all predict a relationship between the items shown to subjects and the learning effect: memorization of the seen exemplars, of fragments or of salient units from these exemplars. We consequently expect a production of grammatical doublets superior in the doublets group than in the symmetries group or in the control group (and conversely, of symmetries in the symmetries group).

59. Difference between groups Symmetry/Doublets

61. Hypotheses ? 2. Differentiation between the exemplarist, fragmentarist and SOC models: - can we expect that the group confronted with the “doublets’ set” develops a sensibility to the very “doublet” regularity (regardless of the colours) and the group “symmetry” a sensibility to the very “symmetry” regularity ?

62. Sensibility to repetition/symmetry ? Sensibility to repetition/symmetry ? SOC Position  The conscious experience of seeing yellow-red-yellow or blue-blue concerns specific color successions but also contains a consciousness of the very repetition structure. The direct encoding of these relational structures (e.g., XYX or XX) may progressively lead to a sensibility to symmetry for itself or to repetition for itself.  The conscious experience of seeing yellow-red-yellow or blue-blue concerns specific color successions but also contains a consciousness of the very repetition structure. The direct encoding of these relational structures (e.g., XYX or XX) may progressively lead to a sensibility to symmetry for itself or to repetition for itself. Exemplarist/fragmentarist positions  they do not predict a sensibility to the symmetry or repetition structures because only the items or fragments of items that have been seenare memorised (only specific successions of colors are encoded).  they do not predict a sensibility to the symmetry or repetition structures because only the items or fragments of items that have been seen are memorised (only specific successions of colors are encoded).

63. Sensibility to repetition/symmetry

65. Which model ? Other investigations have to be made before concluding. What seems clear is that models based on memory (such as the exemplarist, fragmentarist and SOC models) are more plausible than a model based on unconscious abstraction

66. Conclusion: a useful learning mode ?  This ongoing experiment shows that children can learn implicitly relational structures, ie they can incidentally become sensitive to relatively abstract relations:  to what extent can this implicit mode of learning be used to remediate learning difficulties ?  to what extent is it possible to design implicit learning situations? What are the characteristics of any implicit learning situation?

67. Characteristics of the learning situations  No exposition to « errors »: confrontation solely to positive instances of the rules or regularities (during learning).  implicit learning mechanisms capture frequentist (statistical) information, regardless of its origin (from positive instances or errors). We can learn implicitly as well correct as incorrect information: we learn what is frequently presented.

68. Characteristics of the learning situations  Simplify the situations and isolate at best the regularities of interest:  the attentional focus is limited and can process only a reduced number of elements at the same time;  it is also constrained in time and space: informations that have to be associated must not be distant in time or in space.

69. Characteristics of the learning situations  Lead the subject to process the desired information without any explicitation (e.g.: spelling out and copying words in order to make the subject aware of correct orthographical instances).  Finally, necessity to repeat several times the learning situation (implicit learning needs time to occur).

70. Conclusion: a useful learning mode ?  Warning : the implicit learning mode cannot simply substitute the explicit learning mode in most educational contexts:  it is not appropriate if one wants that children acquire explicit knowledge.  A possible association : the implicit mode can make subjects familiar to the rules (to their products), and this familiarity may facilitate the further action of explicit learning.

71. Thanks for your attention!