1. “Social Influence” Chapter 7 How do group members influence one another’s opinions?

2. Overview  Group Polarization Risky Shift Risky Shift Cautious Shift Cautious Shift  General Social Influence Theories No Social Influence (social decision schemes) No Social Influence (social decision schemes) Opinion Expression (social comparison) Opinion Expression (social comparison) New Information (persuasive arguments) New Information (persuasive arguments) Opinion Expression and New Information Opinion Expression and New Information Structurational Theory (group discussion) Structurational Theory (group discussion)  The Valence Model Universal Social Influence Theory Universal Social Influence Theory Threshold Levels Threshold Levels  General Propositions & Conclusions

3. Critical Background Information  Focus shifts from group structure (e.g., power, conformity & deviance) to process (social influence and group interaction).  Natural (bona fide) groups vs. contrived (zero history) groups  Effects of Social Influence – how do individual opinions somehow become “transformed” into one group decision?

4. Social Influence Defined  Social influence is the process by which group members influence one another’s opinions.  Researchers posit that the process of social influence is part of the overall process that a group uses to “formulate” a decision based on the members’ opinions.  Choice dilemmas involve two options: Attractive Outcome – only some probability of success (“risky” choice). Attractive Outcome – only some probability of success (“risky” choice). Less Attractive Outcome – will definitely succeed (safe or “cautious” choice). Less Attractive Outcome – will definitely succeed (safe or “cautious” choice).

5. Group Polarization  Prediscussional Opinions impact on Possible Outcomes (Decisions) All members have the same opinion. All members have the same opinion. Some group members tend toward risk and some tend toward caution. Some group members tend toward risk and some tend toward caution. All group members are on one side, either risk or caution. All group members are on one side, either risk or caution.  Risky Shift – eventual decision is riskier than the mathematical average would predict.  Cautious Shift – when groups make more cautious decisions than individuals.

6. Risky Shifts Explained  Diffusion of Responsibility Don’t worry about possible negative consequences because group can diffuse responsibility for the decision. Don’t worry about possible negative consequences because group can diffuse responsibility for the decision.  Familiarization Anxiety about possible consequences of a risky decision decreases as people become familiar with choice dilemma. Anxiety about possible consequences of a risky decision decreases as people become familiar with choice dilemma.  Leadership Theories Focus is on how specific members influence groups (power, conformity, deviance) Focus is on how specific members influence groups (power, conformity, deviance)  Value Theory Individuals take more chances in the presence of others than they would take alone. Individuals take more chances in the presence of others than they would take alone.

7. Group Polarization  Are group decisions usually more extreme than the individual members’ prediscussion judgments?  The study of group polarization can lead to a general theory of social influence in groups.  Choice dilemmas help scholars examine and theorize about group polarization, and group polarization helps them look at social influence.

8. General Social Influence Theories  No Social Influence (social decision schemes)  Opinion Expression (social comparison)  New Information (persuasive arguments)  Opinion Expression and New Information  Structurational Theory (group discussion)

9. #1 - Group Decisions WITHOUT Social Influence  Social influence is NOT important in group decision making.  Groups come to their decisions by combining prediscussional opinions.  Conclusions are based solely on an arithmetic average.  SOCIAL DECISION SCHEMES – rules that groups use to combine individual members’ decisions into a group decision  “Majority Model”  NOT a good explanation of the process by which groups make decisions!

10. #2 - Social Influence from Opinion Expression  Social influence happens when group members listen to one another express opinions about the available options.  Social influence occurs because people want to agree with the majority.  Learning about other people’s opinions is enough to bring about social influence.  Deliberation is important.  Social comparison approach – valence of risk  Viable – but INCOMPLETE (does not explain WHY the group polarization effect occurs.

11. #3 – Social Influence From New Information  Social influence is important in the decision-making process.  Group members talk about their opinions during meetings and establish advantages and disadvantages of each option.  Group uses the members’ new opinions to help it decide on the best option.  Group members REQUIRE new information before social influence can occur.  Persuasive Arguments Approach  “Hidden Profile Effect” – risky arguments remain hidden.

12. #4 – Social Influence from Opinion Expression AND New Information  Combined Social Comparison / Persuasive Arguments  BOTH opinion expression and new information can affect the opinions of group members.  Social influence is a result of two aspects of group interaction: Social comparison process that leads to biased group discussion. Social comparison process that leads to biased group discussion. New (but often biased) information that group members learn from one another when they discuss the options. New (but often biased) information that group members learn from one another when they discuss the options.  What members think BEFORE group discussion is important—early opinions and arguments predict a group’s decision.  Input-Process-Output Model of Group Discussion  Social comparison theory combines with persuasive arguments theory to account for group polarization.  Good SUPPORTING EVIDENCE to Support Proposal  Ability to explain social influence in general.

13. #5 – Social Influence from GROUP DISCUSSION  Group discussion itself has a larger role in the influence process  Structurational Theory  When people come into groups they already have opinions about what they like best.  What HAPPENS during group discussion is of utmost importance.  Members’ initial opinions may relate only slightly to their final opinions.  FOCUS on CONTENT of group discussion (not on prediscussional opinions) to predict outcomes  Cannot explain why participants bring up new arguments any better than persuasive arguments theory.  Should group discussion be given such a large role in the social influence process?

14. The Valence Model  All proposals in groups have levels of acceptability, which group discussion both governs and reflects.  Positive and Negative Evaluations of Ideas  “Thresholds of Acceptability”

15. Social Influence Conclusions  No single theory about group polarization is absolutely successful.  Valid theories regarding group decision making must account for two (2) propositions: Individual opinions are most important ; group decisions are primarily a result of the opinions of group members. Individual opinions are most important ; group decisions are primarily a result of the opinions of group members. Individual opinions CHANGE as a result of group discussion (social learning). Individual opinions CHANGE as a result of group discussion (social learning).

16. Summary  Group Polarization Risky Shift Risky Shift Cautious Shift Cautious Shift  General Social Influence Theories No Social Influence (social decision schemes) No Social Influence (social decision schemes) Opinion Expression (social comparison) Opinion Expression (social comparison) New Information (persuasive arguments) New Information (persuasive arguments) Opinion Expression and New Information Opinion Expression and New Information Structurational Theory (group discussion) Structurational Theory (group discussion)  The Valence Model Universal Social Influence Theory Universal Social Influence Theory Threshold Levels Threshold Levels  General Propositions & Conclusions

17. Coming Soon…  GROUP DECISION MAKING The study of GROUP PROCESS The study of GROUP PROCESS GROUP STRUCTURE GROUP STRUCTURE