1. Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity

2. But: Relatively few documented differences –Gender stereotypes suggest more differences than are actually documented by research Even documented differences are relatively small in size –Average performance of males and females is not extremely different

3. Figure 15.3 A typical distribution of scores Siegler, DeLoache and Eisenberg: How Children Develop, Second Edition Copyright © 2006 by Worth Publishers

4. Gender Typing Process by which a child: –Becomes aware of his or her gender and that of other people –Acquires information about the characteristics and behavior viewed as appropriate for males or females (gender stereotypes) –Acquires the characteristics and behaviors viewed as appropriate for either males or females (gender roles)

5. Development of Gender Awareness By 2.5 to 3 years, children label their own sex and that of other people Do not yet understand that sex is a permanent characteristic

6. Development of Gender Stereotypes By 2.5 years, children have some knowledge of gender stereotypes Over the preschool/early school years, learn more about toys, activities, and achievement domains considered appropriate for boys versus girls –Ex (achievement): boys are good at math; girls are good at English

7. Preschoolers’ gender stereotypes tend to be rigid –Don’t usually realize that characteristics associated with sex (e.g., activities, clothing) don’t determine whether one is male or female May be one reason they treat gender stereotypes as “rules” rather than as beliefs

8. By elementary school, children’s gender stereotypes are more flexible –Understand that stereotypes are beliefs, not “rules” –However, older children do not necessarily approve of “cross-gender” behavior

9. Development of Gender Role Behavior Between approximately 14-22 months, children begin to show sex-typed toy preferences Sex-typed toy play increases through the preschool years Children begin to avoid peers who violate gender roles

10. Gender segregation develops by ages 2 to 3 years –Tendency to associate with same-sex playmates Typically lasts until around the onset of puberty

11. Biological Influences on Gender Typing (Hormonal Influences) Experimental animal studies indicate that exposure to androgens (male sex hormones): –Increases active play in male and female mammals –Promotes male-typical sexual behavior and aggression and suppresses maternal caregiving behavior in a wide variety of species

12. Humans: Cannot do experimental research for ethical reasons –Correlational research

13. In boys, naturally occurring variations in androgen levels are positively correlated with –Amount of rough-and-tumble play –Levels of physical aggression

14. Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) –Disorder in which child is exposed to high levels of androgens from the prenatal period onward –Compared to girls without CAH, girls with CAH show Higher activity levels Greater interest in “male-typical” toys, activities, and occupations Better spatial/mathematical abilities

15. Environmental Influences on Gender Typing Social Learning Theory –Gender typing results from Observational learning –By watching male and female “models”, children learn “appropriate” appearance, activities/occupations, and behavior for each sex Rewards and punishments associated with gender- typed behavior –Rewards for conforming to appropriate gender role and lack of rewards and/or punishment for failure to conform

16. Parental Behavior On average, data suggest that differences in parental treatment of boys and girls are not large Does not mean that parental behavior is unimportant because: –Younger children receive more direct “training” from parents about gender roles than do older children –Parents vary in the extent to which they practice differential treatment

17. Evidence for Differential Treatment Some data indicate that parents –Provide gender-stereotyped toys (e.g., vehicles, dolls) –Are more responsive when children engage in “gender-appropriate” play But data are not always consistent across studies –Parents also provide gender-neutral toys for children

18. Gender-stereotyped toys may encourage different behaviors, characteristics, or abilities in males and females –Parents give toys that encourage action and competition to boys (e.g., toy weapons, toy vehicles, construction toys and tools, sports equipment) –Parents give toys that encourage nurturance, cooperation, and physical attractiveness to girls (e.g., dolls/stuffed animals, toy dishes, jewelry, jump ropes)

19. Other evidence indicates that parents encourage different behaviors in boys and girls –More likely to encourage independence in boys Respond more positively when boys demand attention, are highly active, or try to take toys from others Also more likely to –Refuse or ignore a son’s request for help –Challenge boys in teaching situations (e.g., offer scientific explanations, ask high-level questions)

20. –More likely to encourage closeness and dependence in girls More likely to: –Direct play activities –Provide help –Engage in conversations –Talk about emotions

21. Differential treatment of boys and girls may be relatively subtle –Data indicate gender differences in parent- child communication Parents more likely to offer scientific explanations to sons than to daughters (at a museum) –Ex: “When you turn that fast, it makes more electricity” versus “Turn that handle”

22. Pasterski et al. (2005) Comparison of toy choices in girls and boys with CAH and their siblings (without CAH) –Girls with CAH played with “boys’ toys” more and “girls’ toys” less than their unaffected sisters –No differences between boys with CAH and their unaffected brothers

23. Parental Behavior –Parents gave more negative responses to their unaffected sons than to their unaffected daughters for play with “girls’ toys” –Parents gave more positive responses to daughters with CAH than to unaffected daughters for play with “girls’ toys”

24. Parental Behavior and Children’s Toy Choices –For unaffected children, parents’ positive and negative responses to children’s toy choices were related to children’s play behavior Positive responses to children’s play with certain toys related to more play with those toys (and vice versa for negative responses) –For children with CAH, parental behavior was not related to children’s toy choices

25. Peer Behavior By age 3, children reinforce each other for “gender-appropriate” play (e.g., by praising, imitating, or joining in) Criticize children who engage in “cross- gender” activities –Boys are especially critical of other boys

26. Male and female peer groups may promote different styles of interaction –Boys more often rely on commands, threats, and physical force –Girls use polite requests, persuasion— works with girls but not with boys

27. Cognitive theories emphasize children’s active role in the process of gender typing (self-socialization)

28. Cognitive Developmental Theory (Kohlberg) Three Stages: –Basic Gender Identity: Recognition that one is a boy or a girl –Emerges between 2.5 and 3 years

29. –Gender Stability Understanding that gender is stable over time –Emerges between 3 and 5 years

30. –Gender Constancy/Consistency Understanding that gender is constant/consistent across situations regardless of appearance or activities –Emerges between 5 and 7 years

31. Kohlberg: Gender constancy leads to adoption of gender roles –Why is this incorrect?

32. Gender Schema Theory: Children construct gender schemas –Organized mental representations incorporating information about gender Include children’s own experiences and information conveyed by others, including gender stereotypes Schemas are dynamic—change as children acquire additional information

33. Once children achieve basic gender identity, they are motivated to conform to gender roles Motivated to prefer, pay attention to, and remember more about others of their own sex Children use gender schemas to process information and guide their behavior

35. Gender Schema Theory: Evidence Martin et al. (1995) Study 3: –Children used gender labels given to toys to guide their behavior Ex: If a toy was labeled as a “boy” toy, girls reported that they were less interested in it and that other girls would also be less interested in it than if the toy was labeled as a “girl” toy (and vice versa for boys) –True even if the toy was very attractive

36. Children also show biases in their memory for information about gender –More likely to accurately remember information that is consistent with gender stereotypes –More likely to forget or distort information that is inconsistent with gender stereotypes