1. Bio 115 Ecology and Evolution Human Evolution

13. Humans have not lost a chromosome; rather, two smaller chromosomes fused to make a single chromosome. Haploid chromosome number.

15. Darwinius masillae Middle eocene (47 Mya) Germany Root species of primates.

22. Ardipithecus ramidis (4.4 Mya) Science October 2, 2009

23. Unexpected anatomy. Ardi has an opposable toe (left) and flexible hand (right); her canines (top center) are sized between those of a human (top left) and chimp (top right); and the blades of her pelvis (lower left) are broad like Lucy's (yellow). Ardipithecus ramidus

24. Filling a gap. Ardipithecus provides a link between earlier and later hominins, as seen in this timeline showing important hominin fossils and taxa. Ardipithecus ramidus

26. Dr. Tim White

27. Evolution of hominids and African apes since the gorilla/chimp+human (GLCA) and chimp/human (CLCA) last common ancestors. Pedestals on the left show separate lineages leading to the extant apes (gorilla, and chimp and bonobo); text indicates key differences among adaptive plateaus occupied by the three hominid genera.

28. Map showing the Middle Awash area (star) and rift locations (red lines). Photo shows the 4.4-Ma volcanic marker horizon (yellow bed) atop the locality where the skeleton and holotype teeth of Ar. ramidus were discovered. Also shown are some of the fossil seeds.

30. Abundance of birds (left) associated with Ar. ramidus. These distributions are consistent with a mostly woodland habitat. (above) An example of the many small mammal and bird bones.

31. (Right) Oblique and side views of a female chimpanzee (right) and the Ar. ramidus female reconstruction (left; the oblique view includes a separate mandible). (Left) Comparison of brain and tooth sizes (arrows) of chimps (Pan, blue), Ar. ramidus (red), and Australopithecus (green). Means are plotted except for individual Ar. ramidus and Au. afarensis cranial capacities. Canine unworn heights (bottom) are based on small samples, Ar. ramidus (females, n = 1; males, n = 3), Au. afarensis (n = 2), Pan (females, n = 19; males n = 11).

32. Dentitions from human (left), Ar. ramidus (middle), and chimpanzee (right), all males. Below are corresponding samples of the maxillary first molar in each. Red, thicker enamel (~2 mm); blue, thinner enamel (~0.5 mm). Contour lines map the topography of the crown and chewing surfaces.

34. The Ar. ramidus pelvis has a mosaic of characters for both bipedality and climbing. Left to right: Human, Au. afarensis (“Lucy”), Ar. ramidus, Pan (chimpanzee). The ischial surface is angled near its midpoint to face upward in Lucy and the human (blue double arrows), showing that their hamstrings have undergone transformation for advanced bipedality, whereas they are primitive in the chimpanzee and Ar. ramidus (blue arrows). All three hominid ilia are vertically short and horizontally broad, forming a greater sciatic notch (white arrows) that is absent in Pan. A novel growth site [the anterior inferior iliac spine (yellow arrows)] is also lacking in Pan.

38. Evolution of Reptiles:

39. Evolution of Mammals:

40. Evolution of Primates:

41. Evolution of Hominids:

42. COVER The right forearm and hand (hand skeleton ∼ 12.3 centimeters long) of (Australopithecus sediba), specimen Malapa Hominin 2. Papers in this issue present a detailed look at the hands, feet, pelvis, brain endocast, and age of this hominid, which lived 2 million years ago, near the emergence of our genus, Homo.

45. Deathtrap. Lee Berger (left), his son Matthew, and dog Tau visit the pit at Malapa.

46. Head first. This virtual reconstruc- tion of Au. sediba's skull shows the endocast of its brain surface (green) with an enlarged frontal gyrus (blue) (Areas reconstructed from a mirror image shown in yellow).

47. Fig. 3 Comparisons of virtual endocasts in (A) superior, (B) inferior, (C) anterior, and (D) left lateral views. K J Carlson et al. Science 2011;333:1402-1407 Published by AAAS Homo Sapiens Australopithecus africanus Australopithecus sediba Pan troglodytis Australopithecus africanus

48. Fig. 2 Comparison of the MH1 (left), Sts 14 (center), and MH2 (right, mirror-imaged) pelves in anteroinferior (top row) and anterosuperior (bottom row) views. J M Kibii et al. Science 2011;333:1407-1411 Published by AAAS

49. Arm vs. hand. Au. sediba's hand has some humanlike traits (large tumb and shorter fingers), but its arm is long and primitive.

50. Fig. 1 Au. sediba MH2 right hand. T L Kivell et al. Science 2011;333:1411-1417 Published by AAAS

51. Fig. 6 Relative length of the thumb in the Au. sediba MH2 hand. T L Kivell et al. Science 2011;333:1411-1417 Published by AAAS

62. Evolution of Hominids:

63. Homo floresiensis Flores, Indonesia

65. Homo floresiensis

69. Homo sapiens Homo sapiens microcephalic Homo floresiensis Homo erectus Chimpanzee

73. Science 29 January 2010 (327) p532.