1. Biological Science

2. Biological Science
Biological science is the application of basic scientific principles to biological questions

3. What do scientists do?
Scientists observe nature, ask questions about what they observe, and systematically go about answering these questions.

4. The Scientific Record
An enormous record of observations, questions, and answers relating to the natural world has developed over time.
This record provides a platform for the next round of observations, questions, and answers.

5. Scientific Method
The scientific method is a process that tests possible answers to questions about nature that have been formulated from careful observations.
Answers supported or refuted by the results of these tests are then added to the scientific record.

6. Attributes of the Method
The scientific method is used by scientists to insure that the answers to their questions are based on objective evidence and verifiable.
Ideas must be testable and cannot deal with things that are supernatural because they are not testable.

7. Common Elements Observing nature Asking a question
Proposing a hypothesis
Designing a test
Making Predictions
Conducting the test
Analyzing the results
Drawing conclusions

8. Observing Nature
Gathering information using the raw senses or using equipment
Keeping careful records of observations
Observation=an aspect of a phenomenon that can be witnesses and recorded

9. Asking a Question What causes something to happen?
How will something affect something else?

10. Proposing a Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation which answers the original question and can be supported or refuted when tested

11. Hypothesis Generation
Hypothesis generation uses inductive reasoning to jump to conclusions
Inductive reasoning draws a general conclusion from individual facts

12. Designing a Test
Scientists design experiments to test their hypothesis
Experiment=empirical test that provides data to test the validity of a hypothesis

13. Making Predictions
Often in the form of an “if/then” statement: “If the hypothesis is true, then such-and-such will occur”
Uses deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning draws a specific conclusion from a general assumption

14. Conducting the Test
Performing the experiment and collecting data, or little facts, that will support or refute the hypothesis

15. Analyzing the Results
Assembling and describing data

16. Drawing Conclusions The data does/does not bear out the predictions
The data does/does not support the hypothesis
The data acts as additional observations for asking new questions and proposing new hypotheses

17. Multiple Working Hypotheses
A set of alternative explanations: H1, H2, H3, etc.
Each one can explain the observations and is supported by tests but none can be chosen over any other.
Further testing may refute some or all of them.

18. Strong Inference
After rigorous testing that involves trying to refute all the working hypotheses one hypothesis may remain
One can strongly infer that the remaining hypothesis is correct

19. Strong Science
Whenever you design an experiment to test a hypothesis, try to think of the experiment that would disprove it.
If you cannot disprove it you may be able to make a strong inference.

20. Null Hypothesis
The null hypothesis is the hypothesis of no difference or nothing happening, H0

21. Strong Hypothesis
The null hypothesis is a strong alternative hypothesis because when you reject a null hypothesis the alternatives all indicate a difference or something happening.

22. Strong Hypothesis
Since there is no positive proof, scientific advances are made by the rejection of null hypotheses.

23. Theory
A hypothesis that has been supported by many different repeatable tests and seems to have no major inconsistencies.

24. Theory
A theory is the surviving hypothesis of a group of multiple working hypotheses
A theory can also be used to predict behavior

25. Conditions for a Theory
Logically consistent
Nothing unnecessary (Occam’s Razor)
Limited by boundary conditions
Falsifiable
Modifiable

26. Basic Properties of Nature
Scientists assume that the natural world has some basic underlying properties
Theories attempt to describe these properties

27. Basic Properties of Nature
Since theories can be falsified but can never be proved beyond all doubt (Carl Popper’s Theorem) the basic underlying properties of nature can never be known with total certainty

28. Unifying Theory It unifies a field of study.
It explains many seemingly unconnected phenomena because it describes a basic underlying property of nature.
It can be used to predict many outcomes.

29. Unifying Theories in Biology
Cell Theory
Basic unit of structure capable of performing all life functions.
Evolution
Descent with modification from common ancestry.

30. Unifying Theories in Geology and Physics
Plate Tectonics
Relativity

31. Scientific Laws
Quantitative relationships between measurable quantities that are predicted by unifying theories, often in the form of equations or algorithms that are accepted by just about all scientists
Ex. Law of Gravity

32. Wrap Up

33. What’s wrong with this order of common elements?
Observing nature
Asking a question
Designing a test
Making Predictions
Conducting the test
Proposing a hypothesis
Analyzing the results
Drawing conclusions

34. What’s wrong with this order of common elements?
Observing nature
Asking a question
Designing a test
Making Predictions
Conducting the test
Proposing a hypothesis
Analyzing the results
Drawing conclusions

35. Common Elements Observing nature Asking a question
Proposing a hypothesis
Designing a test
Making Predictions
Conducting the test
Analyzing the results
Drawing conclusions

36. What’s wrong with this order of common elements?
Observing nature
Making Predictions
Asking a question
Proposing a hypothesis
Designing a test
Conducting the test
Analyzing the results
Drawing conclusions

37. What’s wrong with this order of common elements?
Observing nature
Making Predictions
Asking a question
Proposing a hypothesis
Designing a test
Conducting the test
Analyzing the results
Drawing conclusions

38. What’s wrong with this order of common elements?
Observing nature
Asking a question
Proposing a hypothesis
Designing a test
Conducting the test
Making Predictions
Analyzing the results
Drawing conclusions

39. What’s wrong with this order of common elements?
Observing nature
Asking a question
Proposing a hypothesis
Designing a test
Conducting the test
Making Predictions
Analyzing the results
Drawing conclusions

40. Common Elements Observing nature Asking a question
Proposing a hypothesis
Designing a test
Making Predictions
Conducting the test
Analyzing the results
Drawing conclusions

41. Inductive Reasoning Inductive reasoning draws_____.
Inductive reasoning draws a general conclusion from individual facts.

42. Inductive Reasoning Inductive reasoning is used to_____.
Inductive reasoning is used to jump to conclusions.
Inductive reasoning is used to generate hypotheses.

43. Deductive Reasoning Deductive reasoning draws_____.
Deductive reasoning draws a specific conclusion from a general assumption.

44. Deductive Reasoning Deductive reasoning is used to_____.
Deductive reasoning is used to make predictions.
Deductive reasoning is used to generate if/then statements.

45. Hypotheses: H0, H1, H2, H3, etc. What is H0? What are H0, H1, H2, H3?
H0 is the null hypothesis of no difference or nothing happening.
What are H0, H1, H2, H3?
H0, H1, H2, and H3 are alternative working hypotheses that can explain observations and are supported by tests.

46. Strong Inference
One can strongly infer that, ______, the one remaining is probably correct.
One can strongly infer that, after trying to refute all working hypotheses, the one remaining is probably correct.

47. Theory
A hypothesis that _____ and seems to have no major inconsistencies.
A hypothesis that has been supported by many different repeatable tests and seems to have no major inconsistencies.

48. Unifying Theory
It explains many _____ because it describes a basic underlying property of nature.
It explains many seemingly unconnected phenomena because it describes a basic underlying property of nature.

49. Unifying Theory It can be used to _____ many outcomes.
It can be used to predict many outcomes.