1. Chapter Four An Introduction to Alternative Data-Gathering Strategies and the Special Case of Uniform Crime Reports

2. Questions What are alternative data-gathering strategies? Which one best fits criminal justice research?

3. Alternative Data-Gathering Strategies Experiments Surveys Participant Observation Unobtrusive Measures Case Studies

4. Experiments Control for rival factors that may impair internal validity. Yield relatively quick and inexpensive quantitative data. The primary weakness is the lack of control of external validity. Limited by artificiality. Methods include laboratory and field experiments, however, not all subjects lend themselves to experimentation.

5. Social Surveys Excellent for gathering data that reflects attitudes/behavior, i.e., election polls, opinion polls, and marketing surveys. The strength is the ability to obtain quantitative data that lends itself to descriptive and inferential studies and causal analysis. The statistical controls can control for rival factors. The method of collecting data include questionnaires and interviews (mail or telephone contacts). Criminal justice examples: victimization studies, attitudes toward police, fear of crime, and self-report studies.

6. Participant Observation Primarily qualitative research which focuses on behavior through observation of a group – a “sensitizing” strategy. A data gathering strategy that focuses on a grounded theory approach, in other words, without preconceived hypotheses. Usually takes place in a natural setting. The participant (usually the researcher) is the observer.

7. Unobtrusive Studies Non-reactive or clandestine. The key is that the subject is not aware that they are being studied – avoids “Hawthorne effect.” Methods – physical trace analysis, analysis of existing data, i.e., official police statistics, archival, observation, and simulations. These methods use existing data which can save time, money, and reactivity. A specific example is mapping – Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and other mapping software allow unobtrusive analysis, i.e., hot spots, grid analysis, and environmental criminology.

8. Life History and Case Studies A microcriminological approach or in-depth study of only one or a few cases. Attempt to find a deeper understanding of subject – sensitize or “verstehen.” Methods – analysis of autobiographies, letters, diaries, biographies, etc. Examples include Sutherland’s The Professional Thief (Case Study) and Maas’ The Valachi Papers (Life History).

9. Methods of Measuring Crime Uniform Crime Reports Self- Report Surveys Victim Surveys

10. Questions Do Uniform Crime Reports depict crime in the United States accurately? Why does the media rely on them?

11. UNIFORM CRIME REPORTS Unobtrusive data. One of three major sources of crime statistics in the U.S. (Self- report studies and surveys). UCR’s comprise the actual crimes known to and recorded by local police departments – on a monthly basis (Data is collected by over 17,000 local law enforcement agencies). UCR’s also report crimes cleared by arrest, i.e., arrested, charged, and turned over for prosecution. Between 20-21 percent of all reported index crimes are cleared by arrest each year. Less than 40 percent of all crime is reported to the police.

12. Uniform Crime Reports Divided into two representative categories: Index and non- Index. The crime rate for index offenses is based on a population unit of 100,000. Results compiled annually by the F.B.I. from local police department data and are referred to as the Uniform Crime Reports.

13. Uniform Crime Reports Index Crimes (Part l)  Criminal Homicide  Forcible Rape  Robbery  Aggravated assault  Burglary  Larceny/theft  Motor vehicle theft  Arson Non-Index Crimes (Part 2)  All others (Non-traffic) Violent Crime Crime Non-violentCrime

14. Question What factors might influence the accuracy of the Uniform Crime Reports?

15. Validity of the Uniform Crime Reports Three Main Areas of Concern: Reporting practices: underreporting is the main concern. Law enforcement practices: varying definitions of crime types, methods of recording crime differ among agencies, departmental image concerns, improved computer technology. Methodological issues: (see next slide)

16. Methodological Issues With UCR Data No federal crimes are reported (also, some “white-collar” crimes and victimless crimes are not reported). Reports are voluntary – they vary in accuracy and completeness. Not all police departments submit reports (although Census estimates show approximately 97% of the nation is covered). Each act is listed as a single offense for some crime but not for others. Only the most serious crime is recorded (for an offender who commits multiple crimes).

17. Methodological Issues With UCR Data Definitions of crimes vary from F.B.I. to individual states. UCR arrest statistics do not equal crimes solved or suspects found guilty. The crime index is an un-weighted index. UCR data cannot be used to generalize across jurisdictions. The UCR does not reflect increased urbanization or increased awareness. The F.B.I. uses estimates in its total crime projections.

18. Question Why is the crime rate based on a population rate of 100,000?

19. Crime Rate The crime rate is computed by the number of crimes reported to the police (based on the seven original index crimes). Number of Reported Crimes x 100,000 = Rate per 100,000 Total U.S. Population

20. Clearance Rate The clearance rate for crimes is when at least one person is arrested, charged, and turned over to court for prosecution. Of all crimes reported to the police, 20-21 percent are cleared by arrest. (approximately 50 % for violent crimes and 18% for property crimes).

21. Index Crimes Cleared by Arrest 2003.

22. Use of NCR Data Comparison of crime trends with other data such NCVS and Self-report surveys. Comparison of crime trends within a particular jurisdiction over time.

23. Crime Rate Trends

24. Violent Crime Trends, 1993-2003 (BJS, 2004)

25. Property Crime Victimization Trends, 1993-2003 (BJS, 2004)

26. Questions What causes crime rates to fluctuate? What may have caused crime rates to trend downward in the 1990s?

27. Explaining Crime Trends Age The economy Social malaise Guns Abortion Gangs Drugs Social-legal change Justice Policy Crime Opportunities Some of the important critical factors that have been used to explain the puzzle of crime rate trends

28. The Future of the Uniform Crime Reports The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS): Maintained by the F.B.I. and the B.J.S. Twenty-two crime categories (includes forty-six offense types). More information on each crime in each category and describes victims, offenders, arrestees, and circumstances of crimes. Data compiled based on incidents, not arrests. Twenty-two states have implemented NIBRS (twelve are in the process).

29. Advantages of NIBRS Incident based reporting which include expanded crime characteristics, i.e., victim, offender, and circumstances of the offense. Elimination of the “hierarchy rule.” Expanded offense reporting, i.e., more crime categories/classifications. New offense definitions. Greater specificity of data. Includes crimes against society as well as computer crime. Better statistical analysis between many variables – gives the ability to link information about many aspects of a crime to the crime incident.

30. Question After reviewing the limitations of the Uniform Crime Report, how do these limitations affect “crime rate” as a dependent variable?