1. Ternopil State Medical University named by I. Horbachevskyj
Topic. Historical stages of Therapeutic Dentistry, its chapters. The value of scientific research of Ukrainian scientists. Dental instruments. Histological and clinical anatomy of the teeth. Dental charting. Signs of teeth.
Department of Therapeutic Dentistry
Lecturer: Levkiv Mariana

2. Little about Dentistry
Dentistry, is the branch of medicine that is involved in the evaluation, diagnosis, prevention, and surgical or non-surgical treatment of diseases, disorders and conditions of the oral cavity, maxillofacial area and the adjacent associated structures and their impact on the human body.

3. Therapeutic Dentistry includes such chapters:
Propaedeutic course;
Periodontology;
Preventive dentistry and Endodontology;
Oral Pathology- (deals with oral mucosa diseases)

4. BASIC INSTRUMENTS
There are a few basic instruments that are universal to almost every procedure in dentistry.

5. Hand instruments Working end(s) of instruments
•Are the functional parts of the instrument
• Can have a variety of functions including: cutting, packing, carving, placing and condensing
•Are adapted to the function of the particular instrument
•May be bevelled (i.e. the working end is cut at an angle)
• An instrument can be single-ended (one working end) or double-ended (two working ends)
Shank of an instrument
• The part between the working end and the handle
• Can be straight or angled
• The function of the instrument determines the angle and flexibility of the shank
Handle of an instrument
• Is the part of the instrument that the operator grasps
• Design is related to the function of the instrument

6. Set of examination instruments Mouth mirror
Functions
•To provide indirect vision
•To reflect light
• For retraction and protection of oral tissues
• For magnification (the number of the mirror represents size of mirror head)

7. Sickle/contra-angled probe
Functions
• Detection of:
￿ defective pits and fissures;
￿ calculus;
￿ deficient margins of restorations, crowns and bridges;
￿ caries;
• Examination (pointed tip allows good tactile sensitivity)
Varieties
• Can be single-ended or double-ended
• Many different styles available
•Working ends may vary (straight, curved)

8. Periodontal probe Function and features
• Measure the depth of periodontal pockets
•Tip is calibrated in millimetres
•Blunt end reduces the possibility of tissue trauma
Varieties
• Single-ended or double-ended
• Can be straight, curved or at right angles
• Plastic types available

9. College tweezers Functions
• Placing small objects in the mouth and retrieving small objects from the mouth
• Locking type ‘lock’ to prevent dropping materials
Varieties
• Locking and non-locking types
•Working ends can be straight, curved, serrated or smooth

10. INSTRUMENTS USED IN BASIC RESTORATIVE PROCEDURES
Spoon excavators
Functions and feature
•A spoon-shaped working end for ‘spooning’ out dentinal caries from the cavity preparation
• Edges of working end are sharp
Any remaining caries will be removed with the conventional handpiece and a round bur

11. Mixing spatulas Function and feature • Used to mix dental materials
• Anodised aluminium spatula will not stick to any composite materials or discolour materials

12. Flat plastic instrument.
Also called: plastic instrument
Functions
•To deliver materials to the cavity preparation
•To remove excess materials
Varieties
•Various sizes and shapes available
• Can be single-ended or double-ended

13. Round-ended plastic Functions and feature
•Used to create anatomical shapes in composite material during restorations
•The ball-ended plastic instrument can also be used to pack and condense composite materials

14. Rotary instruments HANDPIECES AND BURS
Dental handpieces and rotary attachments help to make dental treatment more comfortable for the patient and reduce the amount of time needed to complete procedures.

15. Air turbine handpiece
Also called: fast handpiece, high speed handpiece, air rotor handpiece
Type
Contra-angled
Functions, precaution and features
• Removal of tooth tissue during restorations and preparation of teeth for fixed prosthetic appliances
• Polishing of restorations
• High speeds create heat and friction – handpiece must be run with water to cool the tooth to prevent pulpal damage
• High speed saves treatment time and reduces vibration

16. Driven by
•Turbine – may need to be lubricated – check manufacturer’s instructions
• Compressed air rotates the turbine, which then rotates the bur
Speed
Check manufacturer’s specifications (can run up to rpm)
Grip
Accepts friction grip attachments
Attachment
Dental unit
Varieties
• Different types of chucks available (e.g. those which need bur changing tool)
•With or without light
• Smaller heads for difficult access

17. Straight handpiece Functions
• Used in surgical procedures to remove bone (cannot use air turbine as the water is not sterile)
• Used extra-orally at chairside or in the dental laboratory (e.g. for denture adjustments)
Speed
can run up to rpm
Grip
Accepts long shank attachments
Attachment
Electric motor that fits into the base of the handpiece

18. Slow Speed Handpieces Type Contra-angled Functions • Removal of caries
• Polishing
•Procedures that require torque
•Refine cavity preparations and adjust occlusion
Driven by
Gears
Speed
The speed of the handpiece ranges from 0 to rpm
Attachment
Electric motor that fits into the base of the handpiece

19. Burs Head • This is the working end
• Function depends on the size and shape of the head
• Many different sizes and shapes, each used for a different function (cutting, polishing and finishing)
Neck
• The part that connects the head to the shank – usually narrows towards the head
Shank
• The part that fits into the handpiece
• Shapes and lengths vary, depending
on function
• Can sometimes be marked to identi-
fy bur type (stripes or coloured bands)

20. Some points to remember about rotary attachments and burs
• Most often called burs, but also available are wheels, discs, rubber points, rubber cups and stones
• Each has a particular function (cutting, polishing, finishing or caries removal)
•Are made from various materials (tungsten carbide, diamond and steel)
• Can have flutes (the cutting edges)
•The end of the shank determines which handpiece the attachment will fit into:
￿ Long straight shank – straight handpiece
￿ Latch grip – conventional type/slow speed handpiece
￿ Friction grip shank – air turbine handpiece/high speed handpiece
￿ Other various attachments such as snap or screw-type attachments

21. Shape and function
Shape determines function; the examples that follow relate to tungsten carbide burs:
• Rose head/round – cutting and removing caries
• Pear – to shape the cavity preparation
• Fissure – to shape and prepare the cavity preparation

22. Grip and corresponding handpiece
Refers to the way the bur’s shank is ‘gripped’ into the handpiece
Composition
•Refers to the head of the bur and what it is made from
• Generally:
￿ Most latch grip burs are made of steel
￿ Most fiction grip burs are made of tungsten carbide or diamond
￿ Most long shank burs are made from steel if they are meant for surgical procedures and stainless steel if they are meant for laboratory purposes

23. Anatomical and histological features of teeth
1. In adult humans there are 32 permanent teeth.
2. These are preceded during childhood by 20 deciduous teeth.
3. The tooth lies in a bony socket, the alveolus, that is covered an oral mucosa called the gingiva (gums)
Copyright © 2004 by Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

24. Tooth structure

25. Enamel Structure of enamel
Enamel is made up of millions of enamel prisms or rods, which run from the amelo-dentinal junction to the enamel surface. Each prism is made up of a large number of enamel crystallites.

26. Dentine Structure of dentine
Dentine consists of many dentinal tubules that run parallel to each other, following a double curved course, and extend from the pulp to the amelo-dentinal junction. Each dentinal tubule contains an odontoblast process surrounded by intercellular ground substance composed of fine collagenous fibrils. The odontoblast cells are a layer of closely arranged cells on the pulpal surface of the dentine with their nuclei situated at the basal (pulpal) end of each cell.

27. Cementum Physical characteristics of cementum
Cementum is a pale yellow, calcified tissue covering the root dentine. It is softer than dentine and can easily be worn away, resulting in exposure of the dentine. Its thickness varies according to location; it is thickest towards the apical third of the root and thinnest cervically.
Chemical composition of cementum
Cementum is 65% by weight inorganic (mainly hydroxy-apatite), 23% organic (mainly collagen) and 12% water.

28. Dental pulp
The dental pulp is surrounded by dentine and is contained in a rigid compartment.
Functions of pulp
The dental pulp has the following functions:
■ At late bell stage the cells at the periphery of the pulp differentiate into odontoblasts forming dentine.
■ It provides nutrients to the odontoblasts. (trophic function )
■ It acts as a sensory organ especially when dentine is exposed. The pulp rapidly responds to stimuli such as caries and attrition by laying down reparative or reactionary dentine. (reparative function)
■ It mobilises defence cells when bacteria enter it. (protective function)
■ Cells proliferating in the pulpal tissue create pressure; this is thought to play a part in tooth eruption.

29. Periodontal ligament

30. TEETH STRUCTURE
Primary teeth

31. TEETH STRUCTURE
Permanent teeth

32. TOOTH FUNCTION Types Function 1. Incisor
Incisor is a tooth that has one root; function: to cut and cut off food.
2. Canine
Canines are the teeth that have one root and has the function to rip the food.
3. Premolar
teeth that had two/one roots; used to grind and chew food.
4. Molar
Molar tooth is a tooth that has two/three roots; have a function for crushing and chewing food.

33. Morphological differences between primary and permanent teeth
There are numerous differences between the primary and permanent dentition, many of which give rise to considerations in relation to operative treatment. Essentially, primary teeth have:
■ A shorter crown.
■ A lighter colour.
■ Narrower occlusal surfaces.
■ Thinner enamel and dentine.
■ Relatively larger pulps.
■ Curved roots
(to accommodate the
developing permanent
successor).
Copyright © 2004 by Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

34. Numbering Systems Universal/National System
Developed in 1968
Most commonly used in the United States
Fédération Dentaire Internationale System
Canada and European countries use this
Easily adapted by computer and is widely used in most countries
Palmer System

35. Universal numbering system
A system is used in the United States, called the universal system. This is a two-digit system but the teeth are numbered from 1 through to 32 in a clockwise direction starting with the upper right third molar:
Right Upper
Lower Left

36. ISO/FDI numbering system
The mouth is divided into four quadrants and each quadrant is given a number, starting with the upper right quadrant and working in a clockwise direction.
For example, the upper left quadrant is 2. The teeth are then allocated a number starting from the midline, so all central incisors are 1 and all third molars are 8. Therefore the lower right second premolar is 45.
Right Upper
Lower Left

37. Palmer Notation System
In this system, the dentition is divided into quadrants and the teeth in each quadrant are numbered 1 to 8 starting at the midline. Each quadrant is separated by a vertical line for right and left and by a horizontal line for upper and lower. Thus |6 is the upper left first molar in the permanent dentition.
Right | Upper
Lower | Left

38. Universal/National Numbering and Lettering System
Third molars 1 8 9 16 32 25 24 17
Maxillary right
Maxillary left
Mandibular right
Mandibular left
Permanent teeth
Second molars A E F J K T P O
Maxillary right
Maxillary left
Mandibular right
Mandibular left
Primary teeth

39. Fédération Dentaire Internationale System for Numbering
Maxillary right quadrant “1”
Maxillary left quadrant “2”
Mandibular right quadrant “4”
Mandibular left quadrant “3”
Permanent teeth 1 8
Third molars 1
Second molars 5
Maxillary right quadrant “5”
Maxillary left quadrant “6”
Mandibular right quadrant “8”
Mandibular left quadrant “7”
Primary teeth

40. Palmer System for Numbering1
Maxillary left quadrant
Mandibular left quadrant 8
Permanent teeth
Mandibular right quadrant
Maxillary right quadrant A E
Primary teeth
Maxillary left quadrant
Mandibular left quadrant
Maxillary right quadrant
Mandibular right quadrant

41. Overview: Ergonomics and Health Implications for Dental Hygienists
Increase awareness
Decrease work-related pain and injuries
Heighten productivity
Improve musculoskeletal health
Increase comfort
Improve quality of life
Extend careers

42. What is Ergonomics?
Ergonomics is the study of workers and their relationship with their occupational environment
How you position yourself, your patient, how equipment is utilized, how the workplace is designed and how it impacts your health
ERGONOMICS is a way to work smarter, more efficiently with less effort and discomfort to the human body

43. Ergonomics in the Dental Health Field
Studies show work-related pain in the dental field is not decreasing
Over half of all dental professionals continue to experience work-related pain
Why? The physically challenging nature of the work with numerous risk factors 
Risk Factors
Prolonged Static Postures
Repetitive Movements
Working in a confined space
Challenges with positioning yourself or the patient
Limitations with the tools and equipment used
©2008, Valachi from “Practice Dentistry Pain-Free”

44. Consequences of Poor Ergonomics
Fatigue
Pain/Discomfort
Illness/Injury
Missed days at work
Errors
Lower productivity
Patient dissatisfaction

45. Poor Ergonomics: Signs and Symptoms
Physical Signs
Decreased range of motion
Deformity
Decreased grip strength
Loss of muscle function
Symptoms
Pain
Numbness
Tingling
Burning
Cramping
Stiffness
©2008, Valachi from “Practice Dentistry Pain-Free”

46. Poor Ergonomics = Musculoskeletal Disorders
The World Health Organization definition:
Musculoskeletal Disorder is “a disorder of the muscles, tendons, peripheral nerves or vascular system not directly resulting from an acute trauma or instantaneous event”
Two Most Common Causes for Musculoskeletal
Disorders in the Dental Health Profession
Cumulative Traumas
Prolonged Static Postures
©2008, Valachi from “Practice Dentistry Pain-Free”

47. Cumulative Trauma
Repetitive Movements like Scaling and Polishing are Cumulative Traumas
Vibrations transmitted by dental handpieces or mechanical scalers are Cumulative Traumas
Cumulative Traumas add up
These microtraumas cause “wear and tear” on the muscles, tendons, and nerve tissue

48. Prolonged Static Postures
Human body was designed for movement
Dental hygiene procedures means practitioners must maintain static postures
Hygienists hold postures that require more than 50% of the body’s muscles to contract to resist gravity
Muscle overload leads to decreased blood flow and increased pressure on the muscles and joints
©2008, Valachi from “Practice Dentistry Pain-Free”