1. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 1 Thinking and Intelligence Chapter 9

2. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 2 Chapter Outline Thought: Using what we knowThought: Using what we know Reasoning rationallyReasoning rationally Barriers to reasoning rationallyBarriers to reasoning rationally Measuring intelligence: The psychometric approachMeasuring intelligence: The psychometric approach Dissecting intelligence: The cognitive approachDissecting intelligence: The cognitive approach Animal mindsAnimal minds

3. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 3 Thought: Using What We Know The elements of cognitionThe elements of cognition How conscious is thought?How conscious is thought?

4. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 4 The Elements of Cognition ConceptConcept –Mental category that groups objects, relations, activities, abstractions, or qualities having common properties –Basic concepts have a moderate number of instances and are easier to acquire –A prototype is an especially representative example of a concept PropositionProposition –A unit of meaning composed of concepts and expresses a single idea

5. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 5 The Elements of Cognition Cognitive SchemaCognitive Schema –An integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world Mental ImageMental Image –A mental representation that mirrors or resembles the thing it represents

6. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 How Conscious is Thought? Subconscious ProcessesSubconscious Processes –Mental processes occurring outside of conscious awareness but accessible to consciousness when necessary Nonconscious ProcessesNonconscious Processes –Mental processes occurring outside of and not available to conscious awareness

7. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 7 Types of Nonconscious Processes Implicit learning occurs when you have:Implicit learning occurs when you have: –acquired knowledge about something without being aware of how you did so, and –without being able to state exactly what you have learned MindlessnessMindlessness –Mental inflexibility, inertia and obliviousness to the present context

8. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 8 Reasoning Rationally Formal Reasoning: algorithms and logicFormal Reasoning: algorithms and logic Informal Reasoning: heuristics and dialectical thinkingInformal Reasoning: heuristics and dialectical thinking Reflective judgmentReflective judgment

9. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 9 Reasoning The drawing of conclusions or inferences from observations, facts, or assumptionsThe drawing of conclusions or inferences from observations, facts, or assumptions

10. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 10 Algorithms and Logic Deductive ReasoningDeductive Reasoning –A tool of formal logic in which a conclusion necessarily follows from a set of observations or propositions (premises) Inductive Reasoning - A tool of formal logic in which a conclusion probably follows from a set of observations or propositions or premises, but could be false

11. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 11 Heuristics and Dialectical Thinking HeuristicHeuristic –A rule of thumb that suggests a course of action or guides problem solving but does not guarantee an optimal solution Dialectical ReasoningDialectical Reasoning –A process in which opposing facts or ideas are weighed and compared, with a view to determining the best solution or resolving differences

12. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 12 Reflective Judgment SkillsSkills –The ability to question assumptions –Evaluate and integrate evidence –Relate that evidence to a theory or opinion –Consider alternative interpretations –Reach defendable conclusions –Be able to reassess those conclusions in face of new information

13. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 13 Stages of Reflective Judgment

14. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 14 Barriers to Reasoning Rationally Exaggerating the improbableExaggerating the improbable Avoiding lossAvoiding loss Biases due to mental setsBiases due to mental sets The confirmation biasThe confirmation bias The hindsight biasThe hindsight bias The need for cognitive consistencyThe need for cognitive consistency Overcoming our cognitive biasesOvercoming our cognitive biases

15. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 15 Exaggerating the Improbable Availability HeuristicAvailability Heuristic –The tendency to judge the probability of an event by how easy it is to think of examples or instances –For example, in the wake of September 11, most people overestimated their odds of dying in a plane crash even though they continued to take higher risks by driving in their cars

16. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 16 Avoiding Loss People try to minimize risks and losses when making decisionsPeople try to minimize risks and losses when making decisions Responses to the same choice will differ based on whether outcome is framed as gain or lossResponses to the same choice will differ based on whether outcome is framed as gain or loss –In the example, outcomes are the same in Problems 1 & 2

17. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 17 Biases Due to Mental Sets A tendency to solve problems using procedures that worked before on similar problemsA tendency to solve problems using procedures that worked before on similar problems Mental sets make learning and problem solving more efficientMental sets make learning and problem solving more efficient –For example, we look for patterns in events. Not helpful when a problem calls for fresh insights or a new approachNot helpful when a problem calls for fresh insights or a new approach

18. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 18 The Nine-Dot Problem Connect all 9 dotsConnect all 9 dots Use only 4 linesUse only 4 lines Do not lift your pencil from the page after you begin drawingDo not lift your pencil from the page after you begin drawing

19. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 19 The Hindsight Bias The tendency to overestimate one’s ability to have predicted an event once the outcome is knownThe tendency to overestimate one’s ability to have predicted an event once the outcome is known –Also known as the “I knew it all along” phenomenon Common in political judgments, medical judgments, military decisionsCommon in political judgments, medical judgments, military decisions

20. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 20 The Confirmation Bias The tendency to look for or pay attention only to information that confirms one’s own beliefsThe tendency to look for or pay attention only to information that confirms one’s own beliefs Test this rule: If a card has a vowel on one side, it has an even number on the other side. Which 2 cards to turn over?

21. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 21 Need for Cognitive Consistency Cognitive Dissonance:Cognitive Dissonance: –A state of tension that occurs when a person simultaneously holds two cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent, or –when a person’s belief is inconsistent with his or her behaviour

22. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 22 Conditions Which May Reduce Dissonance When you need to justify a choice or decision you freely madeWhen you need to justify a choice or decision you freely made When you need to justify behaviour that conflicts with your view of yourselfWhen you need to justify behaviour that conflicts with your view of yourself When you need to justify the effort put into a decision or choiceWhen you need to justify the effort put into a decision or choice

23. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 23 Justification of Effort The tendency of individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard for or suffered to attainThe tendency of individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard for or suffered to attain A common form of dissonance reductionA common form of dissonance reduction After listening to a boring group discussion, those who went through severe initiation to join, rated it most highly (Aronson & Mills, 1959)After listening to a boring group discussion, those who went through severe initiation to join, rated it most highly (Aronson & Mills, 1959)

24. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 24 Measuring Intelligence: The psychometric approach IntelligenceIntelligence –An inferred characteristic of an individual, usually defined as the ability to profit from experience, acquire knowledge, think abstractly, act purposefully, or adapt to changes in the environment

25. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 25 Psychometrics The measurement of mental abilities, traits and processesThe measurement of mental abilities, traits and processes

26. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 26 Psychometrics Factor analysisFactor analysis A statistical method for analyzing the intercorrelations among various measures or test scores; clusters of measures or scores that are highly correlated are assumed to measure the same underlying trait, ability, or aptitude (factor) A statistical method for analyzing the intercorrelations among various measures or test scores; clusters of measures or scores that are highly correlated are assumed to measure the same underlying trait, ability, or aptitude (factor) g factorg factor A general intellectual ability assumed by many theorists to underlie specific mental abilities and talents

27. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 27 The Invention of IQ tests Binet believed we should measure a child’s mental ageBinet believed we should measure a child’s mental age Binet and Simon developed a test which measured memory, vocabulary, and perceptual discriminationBinet and Simon developed a test which measured memory, vocabulary, and perceptual discrimination Mental age was divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100 to get a IQ or intelligent quotient scoreMental age was divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100 to get a IQ or intelligent quotient score Now IQ scores are derived from norms provided for standardized intelligence testsNow IQ scores are derived from norms provided for standardized intelligence tests

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29. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 29 The Psychometric Approach IQ scores are distributed “normally”IQ scores are distributed “normally” –Bell-shaped curve Very high and low scores are rareVery high and low scores are rare 68% of people have IQ between 85-11568% of people have IQ between 85-115 –99.7% between 55-145

30. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 30 Wechsler Tests Performance Tasks

31. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 31 Culture and Testing Attempts to make IQ tests culture-fair and culture-free have backfired because different cultures have different problem-solving strategiesAttempts to make IQ tests culture-fair and culture-free have backfired because different cultures have different problem-solving strategies Cultural values and experiences affect a person’s:Cultural values and experiences affect a person’s: –Attitude toward exams –Comfort in the settings required for testing –Motivation –Rapport with test provider –Competitiveness –Ease of independent problem solving

32. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 32 Expectations, Stereotypes and IQ Scores Scores are affected by expectations for performanceScores are affected by expectations for performance These expectations are shaped by cultural stereotypesThese expectations are shaped by cultural stereotypes Stereotype threatStereotype threat –A burden of doubt one feels about his or her performance due to negative stereotypes about his or her group’s abilities –Research has shown effects of stereotype threat on African-Americans, Latinos, low-income people, women, and elderly people

33. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 33 An Illustration of Stereotype Threat

34. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 34 Dissecting Intelligence: The Cognitive Approach The triarchic theoryThe triarchic theory Domains of intelligenceDomains of intelligence Thinking critically about intelligence(s)Thinking critically about intelligence(s) Motivation and intellectual successMotivation and intellectual success

35. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 35 Sternberg's Triarchic Theory Componential - a.k.a. “Analytic”Componential - a.k.a. “Analytic” –Comparing, analyzing, and evaluating –This type of processes correlates best with IQ Experiential - a.k.a. “Creative”Experiential - a.k.a. “Creative” –Inventing or designing solutions to new problems –Transfer skills to new situations Contextual - a.k.a. “Practical”Contextual - a.k.a. “Practical” –Using (i.e., applying) the things you know in everyday contexts

36. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 36 Domains of Intelligence Emotional intelligenceEmotional intelligence –The ability to: identify your own and other people’s emotions accuratelyidentify your own and other people’s emotions accurately express your emotions clearlyexpress your emotions clearly regulate emotions in yourself and othersregulate emotions in yourself and others –Appears to be biologically based (Damasio, 1994)

37. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 37 Thinking Critically about Intelligence Debate remains over the issue of intelligence being a single “g” factor versus multiple intelligencesDebate remains over the issue of intelligence being a single “g” factor versus multiple intelligences Broadening definitions of intelligence has forced us to think more critically about what it isBroadening definitions of intelligence has forced us to think more critically about what it is Dynamic testing reveals a person’s ability to learnDynamic testing reveals a person’s ability to learn

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39. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 39 Motivation and Intelligence Comparing the 100 most successful men with 100 least successful, researchers found that motivation, not IQ made the differenceComparing the 100 most successful men with 100 least successful, researchers found that motivation, not IQ made the difference Motivation to work hard at intellectual tasks differs as a function of cultureMotivation to work hard at intellectual tasks differs as a function of culture North American children are as knowledgeable as Asian children on general skillsNorth American children are as knowledgeable as Asian children on general skills

40. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 40 Beliefs About Intelligence Asian parents, teachers, and students are more likely to believe math ability comes from studyingAsian parents, teachers, and students are more likely to believe math ability comes from studying North Americans more likely to view ability as innateNorth Americans more likely to view ability as innate North American parents had lower academic standards for kidsNorth American parents had lower academic standards for kids North American children value education lessNorth American children value education less

41. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 41 Animal Minds Animal intelligenceAnimal intelligence Animals and languageAnimals and language Thinking About the Thinking of AnimalsThinking About the Thinking of Animals

42. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 42 Animal Intelligence Cognitive EthologyCognitive Ethology –The study of cognitive processes in nonhuman animals Studies in cognitive ethology have shown evidence that some animals canStudies in cognitive ethology have shown evidence that some animals can –Anticipate future events –Use numbers to label quantities. –Coordinate activities with other animals

43. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 43 Kohler’s Chimpanzees

44. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 44 Theory of Mind A system of beliefs about:A system of beliefs about: –the way one’s own mind and the minds of others work, and –how individuals are affected by their beliefs and feelings

45. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 45 Animals and Language Language is a critical element of human cognitionLanguage is a critical element of human cognition Many animal species can be taught to communicate in ways that resemble languageMany animal species can be taught to communicate in ways that resemble language –Chimpanzees and bonobos converse using American Sign Language and symbol board systems –An African grey parrot has been taught to count, classify, and compare objects using English words Whether these behaviours are language depends on how you define “language”Whether these behaviours are language depends on how you define “language”

46. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 46 Thinking About Animal Thinking AnthropomorphismAnthropomorphism –The tendency to falsely attribute human qualities to nonhuman beings AnthropocentrismAnthropocentrism –The tendency to think, mistakenly, that human beings have nothing in common with other animals