1. Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Components of Academic Learning Time Figure 13.1 ALLOCATED TIME 300 minutes INSTRUCTIONAL TIME Average range = 50% to 90% of allocated time Proportion for sample class = 45% 135 minutes ENGAGED TIME Average range = 45% to 90% of instructional time Proportion for sample class = 85% 115 minutes ACADEMIC LEARNING TIME Average range = 40% to 90% of engaged time Proportion for sample class = 65% 75 minutes Reduced by interruptions, transitions, late starts, early closings, absenteeism, and other noninstructional activities. Reduced by inattentiveness and disruptiveness Reduced by inappropriateness of task for student From Maribeth Gettinger, Best Practices. Copyright © 1990 the National Association of School Psychologists. Reprinted by permission of the publisher. 73

2. Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Bloom’s Theory of School Learning Figure 13.3 STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS Cognitive entry behaviors Affective entry behaviors QUALITY OF INSTRUCTION Learning task LEARNING OUTCOMES Kinds of achievement Rate of learning Affective outcomes 74

3. Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Instructional Functions Table 13.1 1. Daily Review and Checking Homework Checking homework (routines for students to check each other’s papers) Reteaching when necessary Reviewing relevant past learning (may include questioning) Review prerequisite skills (if applicable) 2. Presentation Provide short statement of objectives Provide overview and structuring Proceed in small steps but at a rapid pace Intersperse questions within the demon- stration to check for understanding Highlight main points Provide sufficient illustrations and concrete examples Provide demonstrations and models When necessary, give detailed and redundant instructions and examples 3. Guided Practice Initial student practice takes place with teacher guidance High frequency of questions and overt student practice (from teacher and/or materials) Questions are directly relevant to the new content or skill Teacher checks for understanding (CFU) by evaluating student responses During CFU teacher gives additional expla- nation, process feedback, or repeats expla- nation—where necessary All students have a chance to respond and receive feedback; teacher ensures that all students participate Prompts are provided during guided practice (where appropriate) Initial student practice is sufficient so that students can work independently Guided practice continues until students are firm Guided practice is continued (usually) until a success rate of 80 percent is achieved From Barak Rosenshine and Robert Stevens, “Teaching Functions.” Reprinted with permission of Simon & Schuster Macmillan Handbook of Research on Teaching, Third Edition, Merlin C. Wittrock, Editor. Copyright © 1986 by the American Educational Research Association. Note: With older, more mature learners, or learners with more knowledge of the subject, the following adjustments can be made: (1) the size of the step in presentation can be larger (more material is presented at one time), (2) there is less time spent on teacher-guided practice and (3) the amount of overt practice can be decreased, replacing it with covert rehearsal, restating and reviewing. 75

4. Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Instructional Functions Table 13.1 (Continued) 4. Correctives and Feedback Quick, firm, and correct responses can be followed by a question or a short acknowledgement of correctness (“That’s right”) Hesitant correct answers might be followed by process feedback (i.e., “Yes, Linda, that’s right because…”) Student errors indicate a need for more practice Monitor students for systematic errors Try to obtain a substantive response to each question Corrections can include sustaining feedback (i.e., simplifying the question, giving clues), explaining or reviewing steps, giving process feedback, or reteaching the last steps Try to elicit an improved response when the first one is incorrect Guided practice and corrections continue until the teacher feels that the group can meet the objectives of the lesson Praise should be used in moderation, and specific praise is more effective than general praise. 5. Independent Practice (Seatwork) Sufficient practice Practice is directly relevant to skills/content taught Practice to overlearning Practice until responses are firm, quick, and automatic Ninety-five percent correct rate during independent practice Students alerted that seatwork will be checked Student held accountable for seatwork Actively supervise students, when possible 6. Weekly and Monthly Reviews Systematic review of previously learned material Include review in homework Frequent tests Reteaching of material missed in tests From Barak Rosenshine and Robert Stevens, “Teaching Functions.” Reprinted with permission of Simon & Schuster Macmillan Handbook of Research on Teaching, Third Edition, Merlin C. Wittrock, Editor. Copyright © 1986 by the American Educational Research Association. Note: With older, more mature learners, or learners with more knowledge of the subject, the following adjustments can be made: (1) the size of the step in presentation can be larger (more material is presented at one time), (2) there is less time spent on teacher-guided practice and (3) the amount of overt practice can be decreased, replacing it with covert rehearsal, restating and reviewing. 76

5. Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Desired Characteristics of Objectives Table 13.3 Specified content Specified outcome Specified level of performance Specified outcome in clear, exact terms Content should be precisely stated in behavioral terms. Students’ behavior as a result of learning, should be stated as observable outcomes. Not only should expected student behavior be specified, but the exact degree of attainment should be clear to both teacher and students. Verbs such as name, identify, classify, order, avoid, and understand should be used. MeaningCharacteristic 77

6. Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Instructional Theories Table 13.8 Bloom Bruner Gagne Hunter Markle Skinner Educational research Cognitive development Information processing Decision making Operant conditioning Mastery learning Entry behaviors Time on task Learning outcomes Theoretical base Optimal sequence Modes of representation Instructional events Learning outcomes Adaptive teaching Instructional decisions Active responding Errorless learning Immediate feedback Defined objectives First instance Sequential steps Controlled responses Reinforcement Prerequisite skills Learning tasks Achievement levels Instructional processes Readiness, motivation, acquisition, transformation, evaluation Learning Retention Transfer Formulation objectives Direct instruction Enhanced achievement Programmed instruction Behavior analysis Programmed instruction All aspects of behavior Name BasisEmphasis Application 78

7. Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Eleven Big Ideas in Effective Teaching l Teachers communicate clear and high expectations for student learning. l Standards for classroom behavior are explicitly communicated. l Classroom routines are smooth and efficient. l Students are carefully oriented to lessons. l Instruction is clear and developmentally appropriate. l Instructional groups are based on instructional needs of students. l Learning progress is monitored frequently. l Teachers review and reteach when necessary. l Learning time must be increased. l Personal interactions between teachers and students are positive. l Incentives and rewards are used to promote excellence. 79