1. Lesson 2 – Ethics Pages 369-376

2. Table of Contents [Lesson 2 – Ethics] Moral relativism (continued) p. 367-371 – Does relativism imply tolerance? P. 369-370 Does relativism imply tolerance? – Arguments against moral relativism p. 370-371 Arguments against moral relativism Self-interest theory p. 371-375 Self-interest theory – The definitional argument p. 372 The definitional argument – The evolutionary argument p. 373 The evolutionary argument – The hidden benefits argument p. 373-374 The hidden benefits argument – The fear of punishment argument p. 375 The fear of punishment argument

3. Does relativism imply tolerance? It seems to be open-minded and tolerant but is it? However it can easily lead to cultural imperialism – where one culture pushes it’s customs or values onto another culture. Example: Spanish Conquistadors Therefore universal tolerance is NOT consistent with moral relativsim

4. Does relativism imply tolerance? (continued) Why is moral relativism inconsistent with universal tolerance? – A consistent relativist would allow cultural imperialism. – However on the other hand if you choose to say that cultural imperialism should not be allowed than you are claiming that there is a universal value which exists – tolerance. Remember that moral relativism states that there are NO UNIVERSAL VAULES.

5. Arguments Against Moral Relativism 1 st : There are core values that are accepted among all cultures – However there is the problem that throughout history most cultures have not had much concern for “outsiders.” 2 nd : There are some core values which we can argue are intuitively obvious. – For example most cultures agree that it’s obviously bad to inflict needless pain (torture) or suffering on others. – It’s difficult to agree on what is “intuitively obvious” though.

6. Self-Interest Theory It is the idea that humans are selfish and greedy. – Opposes altruism – The theory says humans are “always” and “everywhere” greedy and self-centered. There are four arguments which support this theory: – The “Definitional Argument” – The “Evolutionary Argument” – The “Hidden Benefits Argument” – The “Fear of Punishment Argument”

7. The Definitional Argument It is true that humans are always selfish because they must be People always do what they want to do. In other words, if people do something that is unpleasing, they are doing it because they feel guilt or obligation – it’s not because they are being altruistic. Altruism – the idea of being good or doing right for the sake of being good. An altruistic person seeks no rewards from being good.

8. The Definitional Argument (Criticisms) It removes the meaning of the words “selfish” and “altruistic” and makes them the same. So these words now have no power and that is a problem We should distinguish between “self-regarding desires” and “other regarding desires.” “Self-regarding desires” are things that directly benefit the individual with some kind of immediate reward. “Other-regarding desires” are things that directly benefit another person most immediately and not the individual.

9. The Evolutionary Argument Due to Evolution (by Natural Selection), humans are naturally selfish. We are programmed (our DNA) this way for survival. This is why capitalism has been so successful (as a political system) – because it takes advantage of our natural “greediness.”

10. The Evolutionary Argument (Criticisms) Evidence exists showing that empathy (caring for others) is in our DNA too. Compassion and empathy exist because they are essential for mothers and fathers to take care of their children. This is so that the species can survive. I watched a nature show recently where a mother Cheetah attacked a male lion so that the lion wouldn’t find her cubs (babies).

11. The Hidden Benefits Argument There are rewards for being altruistic – Gratitude (people who are grateful) – Praise and compliments – It gives a positive image Murderous Texas cheerleader Mom Martyr – somebody who dies for an important cause. – Example 1: Martin Luther King Jr. – died for the cause of Black Civil Rights in America – Example 2: September 11, 2001 the airplane hijackers that crashed airplanes into the World Trade Center in New York saw themselves as martyrs and believed they would go to heaven. – Example 3: Jet Li’s character in the movie “Hero.” He sacrifices his life because he believes in the end of the movie that unification and peace are more important than his wish to assassinate the Emperor.

12. The Hidden Benefits Argument (criticisms) Sometimes when we help others it is done for no reward. Example 1: Tipping Example 2: French people who helped Jews hide during the Second World War Example 3: Shindler’s List, a movie based on the life of Oskar Shindler who saved the lives of hundreds of Jewish people. He took great risks and got nothing in return.

13. The Fear of Punishment Argument What if I get caught doing something wrong? Will I be punished? This “fear of punishment” makes us behave in an ethical manner. Example: The Montreal Police strike in 1969

14. The Fear of Punishment Argument (Criticisms) Not all good behavior is motivated by fear Mother Theresa did not face any punishments as an explanation for her behavior. Even if you had a ring of invisibility, such as the Ring of Gyges, you would not do certain things.