1. Volcanism

4. Plate tectonics and igneous activity Global distribution of magmatism is not random Most volcanoes are located within or near ocean basins Basalt common in both oceanic and continental settings Granite is rare in oceans, mostly found in continents

5. Distribution of major volcanoes

6. Plate tectonics and igneous activity Igneous activity along plate margins Spreading centers –Great volumes of volcanic rock produced along oceanic ridges –Mechanism of spreading –Lithosphere pulls apart and thins –Less pressure results in partial melting in mantle

9. A fissure eruption is an eruption from a long crack in the lithosphere. The Columbia River flood basalts are a continental example

11. Other volcanic landforms Fissure eruptions and lava plateaus Fluid basaltic lava extruded from crustal fractures called fissures e.g., Columbia River Plateau Flood basalts cover huge areas

13. Flood Basalt erupted from fissures - Snake River Plain, southern Idaho

15. The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions Factors determining the “violence” or explosiveness of a volcanic eruption Composition of the magma Temperature of the magma Dissolved gases in the magma These three factors control the viscosity of magma (which controls the nature of an eruption)

16. The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions Viscosity is a measure of a material’s resistance to flow (higher viscosity materials flow with great difficulty; water has very low viscosity) Factors affecting viscosity Higher temperature - magma is less viscous (or more fluid) Composition - higher silica (SiO 2 ) content - magma is more viscous (rhyolite) Lower silica content = lower viscosity or more fluid-like behavior (e.g., mafic lava such as basalt)

17. The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions Factors affecting viscosity continued Dissolved Gases –Gas content affects magma mobility –Gases expand in a magma as it nears the Earth’s surface due to decreasing pressure –The violence of an eruption is related to how easily gases escape from magma

18. The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions Summary Fluid basaltic lavas generally produce quiet eruptions (Hawaiian volcanos gurgle) Highly viscous lavas (rhyolite or andesite) produce more explosive eruptions (Yellowstone or St Helens)

19. Materials extruded from a volcano Lava Flows Basaltic lavas are much more fluid Types of basaltic flows –Pahoehoe lava (- twisted or ropey texture) –Aa lava (rough, jagged blocky texture) Dissolved Gases 1-6% of a magma by weight Mainly water vapor and carbon dioxide

20. A Pahoehoe lava flow

22. A typical aa flow

23. Materials extruded from a volcano Pyroclastic materials – “Fire fragments” Types of pyroclastic debris Ash and dust - fine, glassy fragments Pumice - porous rock from “frothy” lava Lapilli - walnut-sized material Cinders - pea-sized material Particles larger than lapilli –Blocks - hardened or cooled lava –Bombs - ejected as hot lava

24. A volcanic bomb Bomb is approximately 10 cm long

25. Volcanoes General Features Opening at the summit of a volcano –Crater - steep-walled depression at the summit, generally less than 1 km diameter –Caldera - a summit depression typically greater than 1 km diameter, produced by collapse following a massive eruption Vent – opening connected to the magma chamber via a pipe

26. Volcanoes Types of Volcanoes Shield volcano –Broad, slightly domed-shaped –Composed primarily of basaltic lava –Generally cover large areas –Produced by mild eruptions of large volumes of lava –Mauna Loa on Hawaii is a good example

27. A size comparison of the three types of volcanoes

29. Olympus Mons Caldera

30. Volcanic Domes

31. Volcanoes Types of Volcanoes continued Cinder cone –Built from ejected lava (mainly cinder-sized) fragments –Steep slope angle –Rather small size –Frequently occur in groups

33. Cinder cones are built from ejected lava fragments

34. Sunset Crater – a cinder cone near Flagstaff, Arizona

35. Volcanoes Types of volcanoes continued Composite cone (Stratovolcano) –Most are located adjacent to the Pacific Ocean (e.g., Fujiyama, Mt. St. Helens) –Large, classic-shaped volcano (1000’s of ft. high & several miles wide at base) –Composed of interbedded lava flows and layers of pyroclastic debris

36. A composite volcano

37. Mt. St. Helens – a typical composite volcano (prior to eruption)

38. Mt. St. Helens following the 1980 eruption

40. Volcanoes Composite cones continued –Most violent type of activity (e.g., Mt. Vesuvius) –Often produce a nueé ardente –Fiery pyroclastic flow made of hot gases infused with ash and other debris –Move down the slopes of a volcano at speeds up to 200 km per hour –May produce a lahar, which is a volcanic mudflow

41. A nueé ardente on Mt. St. Helens

42. Town of St Pierre on Montserrat after Nuee Ardente

43. Other volcanic landforms Calderas (form by collapse of evacuated magma chamber) Steep-walled depressions at the summit Size generally exceeds 1 km in diameter Pyroclastic flows (explosive mix of rock, gas and heat) Only with felsic & intermediate magma Consists of ash, pumice, and other fragmental debris Material propelled from vent at high speed

44. Hazards related to volcanoes Lava Pyroclastics Laharar Pyroclastics flows-Nuees Ardentes Toxic gases Steam explosions Climate and atmospheric chemistry

45. The colder lava becomes, the thicker, more viscous, and slower-flowing it gets. When cooled enough, it may solidify altogether. Lava

46. Protecting Inhabitants One strategy would be to slow the flow—either by spraying it with water so that it congeals and dams itself, or by constructing earthen or other dams in front of it to slow it down long enough to cause it to crystallize, stiffen, and stop.

47. Lava

48. Pyroclastics

50. Lahars

51. The mudflow has taken out the main bridges

52. Pyroclastic flows-Nuees Ardentes

54. Toxic gases Water vapor and carbon dioxide are nontoxic, yet can nevertheless be dangerous at high concentrations Carbon monoxides, sulfur gases, and hydrochloric acid are poisonous

55. How may volcanic eruptions influence global climate? Explosive eruptions, particularly, may put large volumes of dust and sulfuric acid aerosols into the atmosphere. These block sunlight and thus contribute to global cooling The dust can take several months to years to settle

56. Climate and atmospheric chemistry

59. Active volcanoes have a recent history of eruption. Dormant volcanoes: no historic erupts but not badly eroded Those volcanoes classified as extinct have neither erupted within historic record, nor do they have a very fresh appearance; they are not expected to erupt again. Classification of volcanoes by activity

60. Volcanic precursors What do scientists look for when monitoring a volcano? seismic activity tilting or uplift monitoring gas emissions around volcanoes

61. Present and future volcanic hazards in USA