1. The Transformations of Scientific Fields: Physics, Chemistry 1900-1945 Yves Gingras Canada Research Chair History and Sociology of Science CIRST-UQAM

2. Distinctions between fields by journal title

3. Papers and References in Selected Source journals (1900-1944)

4. Growth in number of researchers

5. Growth in the number of papers

6. Authors’ “productivity”

7. Collaborative research

8. Proportion of papers by country (journal publisher) Note: “other” counties include Sweden, the Netherlands, the USSR and Switzerland

9. Interdisciplinarity (defined by the journals where scientists publish) Maths-PhysChem-MathsChem-Phys Bateman, HLoewy, AHarkins, WD Weyl, HSchmidt, ETrautz, M Schur, ISaurel, PLangmuir, I Synge, JLFischer, ETammann, G Bieberbach, LMeyer, EHahn, O Hopf, ESchmidt, HEyring, H Meyer, ESalkowski, ETolman, RC Klein, FYoung, RCHuggins, ML Larmor, JMuller, MPauli, W Polya, GSchmidt, RMark, H Top 10 interdisciplinary authors (1900-1945) Chemistry: 54,000 authors Maths: 2700 authors Physics: 17,000 authors Chemistry/Physics: 2700 Chemistry/Maths: 130 Maths/Physics: 280 All 3 disciplines: 20

10. Country of origin of cited publication

11. Citations in chemistry journals

12. Citations in Physics Journals

13. Citations in Mathematics Journals

14. Impact of disciplines on one another

15. Citation statistics by country (1900-1944) Chemistry GermanyOtherFranceUKUSA Germany72.83%5.69%5.70%7.14%8.64% Other36.21%35.57%5.79%10.28%12.15% France39.43%6.96%37.94%7.38%8.29% UK27.95%4.91%5.25%36.80%25.09% USA25.03%6.31%5.35%13.79%49.52% Total51.27%7.54%5.93%11.76%23.50% Citing Cited Maths GermanyOtherFranceUKUSA Germany63.49%14.90%9.19%5.83%6.59% Other31.70%28.30%23.43%7.70%8.88% UK13.04%7.76%5.50%65.03%8.67% USA21.32%10.55%7.03%12.52%48.57% Total36.99%12.71%8.53%22.21%19.57% PhysicsGermanyOtherFranceUKUSA Germany70.96%4.55%4.87%10.75%8.87% Other32.04%29.47%3.34%16.44%18.71% France32.70%5.61%39.02%13.14%9.54% UK24.25%4.82%4.68%41.04%25.20% USA21.72%4.81%3.61%16.24%53.62% Total39.88%5.31%5.78%17.53%31.50% Cited Citing

16. Citation statistics by discipline (1900-1944) Bio / MedChemistryGeneralEngineeringMathsPhysics Chemistry9.00%74.94%9.11%0.98%0.02%5.95% Maths1.58%0.13%21.67%0.41%70.35%5.87% Physics1.78%12.50%21.41%3.22%0.57%60.51% Total6.87%56.20%12.74%1.56%2.13%20.49% Citing Cited

17. Gauging the country of publication of cited articles % of articles produced by country UKUSAGermanyOther (*) Chemistry6.3631.5155.246.89 Mathematics14.1730.5749.435.83 Physics18.8841.4932.896.74 (*) France is included in this category, since the database poorly reflects the French journals in Chemistry and Physics Based on a semi-random sample of 300 physicists and 500 chemists from each country(**), we can get an alternative idea of how the cited articles are distributed: % of articles cited by scientists in: ChemistryPhysics France11.1512.08 Germany38.7030.67 Other6.705.83 UK19.9525.83 USA23.5025.58 (**) There is insufficient data for the case of mathematicians

18. Co-citation network of physicists, 1900-1904 (More than 8 co-citations).

19. Physics (1905-1911) Co-citation network of top 50 most cited authors Note two groups which emerge Node sizes reflect number of citations, visible ties for 11 co-citations or more

20. Multi-dimensional scaling and agglomerative clustering MDS provides a map based on the distances “dissimilarities” between citation patterns of the authors (top 50 most cited authors in physics, 1905- 1911) AHC then allows us to identify cluster of “similar” authors In this case, it identifies two primary, distinct clusters, which are the same as those identified using the networks Group 2 spectroscopy Chemical physics Electron theoryIonization, atom

21. Word frequency in titles of citing papers Group2: Ionization of gases, atomic model, emission spectra … (Thomson, Stark, Wien, Riecke, Lenard, Warburg, Kayser) WordFrequency Radiation34 Light28 Relativity24 Electrical22 waves20 metals18 Dispersion17 Magnetic17 Heat17 Electric15 energy15 Electromagnetic14 Electron13 Absorption13 metal13 method12 moving12 spectrum12 WordFrequency Light55 rays36 Radiation35 Electrical33 Discharge28 Absorption28 gases27 Spectra27 spectrum23 lines22 Cathode22 Spectral21 Emission19 canal19 Electricity17 influence17 Magnetic17 Group 1: Special relativity and the photoelectric effect (Einstein, Abraham, Lorentz, Drude, Planck)

22. Co-citation network of physicists, 1912-1918 (More than 10 co-citations).

23. Co-citation network of physicists, 1925-1930 (More than 16 co-citations)

24. Co-citation network of physicists, 1937-1944 (More than 21 co-citations)

25. Centrality Rankings 5-years periods

26. Co-citation network of authors in Mathematics Journals (1900-1911)

27. Why We Cannot Predict Nobel Prizes... Yves Gingras and Matthew Wallace CIRST-UQAM

28. Nobel prize winners and nominees Number of physics nominees (1901-44): 813 Number of physics winners (1901-44): 47 Number of chemistry nominees (1901-44): 756 Number of chemistry winners (1901-44): 43

29. Evolving profile of prize winners (n=43) (n=46) (n=71) (n=47) (n=42) (n=89)

30. Probability distribution of rankings 3 years before and after the prize Note that, in all cases, the winners’ centrality provides a slightly better indicator (for the highest ranks) ( n=172 ) ( n=169 ) ( n=167 ) ( n=166 )

31. How does the distribution of winners’ rankings evolve? (Part I: Physics)

32. How does the distribution of winners’ rankings evolve? (Part II: Chemistry)