1. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 3 Oceanography, An Invitation to Marine Science | 9e Tom Garrison Earth Structure and Plate Tectonics

2. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Earth’s interior is layered, and the layers are arranged by density Continents rise above sea level because they float on a dense, deformable layer beneath them The brittle surface of Earth is fractured into about a dozen tile like “plates” Key Concepts

3. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Movement of the subterranean material on which these plates float moves them relative to one another Continents and oceans are formed and destroyed where the plates collide, flex, and sink Compelling evidence for plate movement is recorded in magnetic fields within the ocean floor Key Concepts (cont’d.)

4. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Theory proposed by Alfred Wegener Pangaea – all continents in one landmass Fossil evidence across continents Proposed a centrifugal force mechanism Dismissed as a “crank” The Theory of Continental Drift

5. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Continents That Were Once Joined Formed Continuous Chains

6. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Density stratified, with denser material towards the center –Density: mass per unit volume 3.2 Earth’s Interior Is Layered

7. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Earthquakes generate seismic waves Surface waves – travel along Earth’s surface Body waves – travel through Earth –P wave – compressional wave –S wave – shear wave Seismograph – detects and records seismic waves 3.3 The Study of Earthquakes Provides Evidence for Layering

8. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Shadow zones –Predicted by Richard Oldham –S waves cannot pass through liquids –P waves are refracted at density boundaries Data from an earthquake, a “natural experiment,” confirmed theories of Earth’s layering Earthquake Wave Shadow Zones Confirmed the Presence of Earth’s Core

9. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. How Earthquakes Contributed to Our Model of the Layered Earth

10. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Earth’s internal layers are based on chemical composition –Crusts, mantle, and cores Earth’s internal layers are also based on physical properties –Lithosphere –Asthenosphere –Lower mantle –Core 3.4 Earth’s Inner Structure Was Gradually Revealed

11. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Earth’s interior is heated by radioactive decay –Conduction –Convection Isostatic equilibrium supports continents above sea level –Buoyancy – displacement of fluid as an object floats Radioactive Decay and Isostatic Equilibrium

12. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Stepped Art Mountains Mantle Continental crust Low-density mountain root Uplift Subsidence Transport Deposition Erosion Subsidence Figure 3-10 p79

13. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Erosion and Isostatic Readjustment in Continental Crust

14. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. The age of Earth has been controversial –James Hutton – uniformitarianism –Controversy with biblical school of thought – catastrophism –Darwin and Wallace – biological evolution Evidence from exploration has convinced most researchers that Earth is of great age 3.5 The New Understanding of Earth Evolved Slowly

15. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Pacific Ring of Fire –Tectonic activity surrounding Pacific Ocean Oceanic crust dated and found to be young compared to the age of Earth Echo sounding used to reveal seafloor topography 3.6 Wegener’s Idea Is Transformed

16. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Seafloor spreading – new hypothesis –Mid-ocean ridges are spreading centers Subduction zones – areas where oceanic crust plunges down into the mantle Plate tectonic theory – John Tuzo Wilson –Lithospheric plates “float” on asthenosphere –Plate movement Form at mid-ocean ridges Pulled downward into the mantle by leading edge 3.7 The Breakthrough: From Seafloor Spreading to Plate Tectonics

17. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. The Tectonic System Is Powered by Heat

18. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Divergent plate boundaries –Plates moving apart –Rift valley forms as crust is pulled/pushed apart 3.8 Plates Interact at Plate Boundaries

19. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Convergent plate boundaries –Plates coming together Ocean to ocean convergence Ocean to continent convergence Continent to continent convergence Transform plate boundaries –Plates shear laterally past one another Convergent and Transform Plate Boundaries

20. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Divergences –Divergent oceanic crust (Mid-Atlantic) –Divergent continental crust (rift valleys) Convergences –Oceanic-continental (South America) –Oceanic-oceanic (northern Pacific) –Continental-continental (Himalayas) 3.9 A Summary of Plate Interactions

21. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. The history of plate movement is captured in residual magnetic fields –Paleomagnetism – recording of Earth’s past magnetic field Iron-bearing minerals in ocean-floor basalts align with the magnetic field and remain when rock solidifies –Magnetometer – records residual magnetism 3.10 The Confirmation of Plate Tectonics

22. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. The Age of the Ocean Floors

23. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Plate movement above mantle plumes and hot spots –Mantle plumes and hot spots remain stationary under moving plates Sediment age and distribution, oceanic ridges, and terranes –Terranes – small pieces of different crust that gets sutured onto a continent at a subduction zone Plumes, Hot Spots, and Terranes Provide Evidence of Plate Tectonics

24. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Terrane Formation

25. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Many questions remain unanswered –Why should long lines of asthenosphere be any warmer than adjacent areas? –Why do mantle plumes form? What causes a superplume? How long do they last? –How far do most plates descend? (Recent evidence suggests that much of the material spans the entire mantle, reaching the edge of the outer core) 3.11 Scientists Still Have Much to Learn about the Tectonic Process

26. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Earth is composed of concentric spherical layers that are density sorted Layers are confirmed based on seismic evidence Plate tectonics suggests Earth’s surface is made up of lithospheric plates that interact in different ways at plate boundaries Chapter In Perspective

27. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. What’s the potential for serious loss of life and property damage due to tectonic plate movement? Is plate movement a new feature of Earth? Some Questions from Students