1. It’s Autumn Now! Inquiring Minds report out on homework fallacies pt1

2. Zaid Ali Alsagoff zaid.alsagoff@gmail.c om zaid.alsagoff@gmail.c om Module 4: Fallacies

3. Man or Woman? Source: http://www.coolopticalillusions.com/manwoman.htmhttp://www.coolopticalillusions.com/manwoman.htm

4. How many legs does this elephant have? Source: http://www.coolopticalillusions.com/elephantlegs.htmhttp://www.coolopticalillusions.com/elephantlegs.htm

5. Which officer is the tallest? Source: http://www.coolopticalillusions.com/optical_illusions_images_2/giant_man.htmhttp://www.coolopticalillusions.com/optical_illusions_images_2/giant_man.htm

6. Is this wave moving? Source: http://www.grand-illusions.com/opticalillusions/oblong_wave/http://www.grand-illusions.com/opticalillusions/oblong_wave/

7. AirAsia + Girls = Fun Analyze+Evaluate= Your Opinion? Target Audience?

8. Module 4: Fallacies 1.Fallacies of Relevance 2. Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence What mistake!!!

9. 4.0 What is a Fallacy? contains a mistake in reasoningA (logical) fallacy is an argument that contains a mistake in reasoning. Fallacies can be divided into two general types: – Fallacies of Relevance – Fallacies of Relevance Arguments in which the premises are logically irrelevant to the conclusion. – Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence – Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence Arguments in which the premises, though logically relevant to the conclusion, fail to provide sufficient evidence for the conclusion.

10. “ There is nothing so stupid as an educated man, if you get him off the thing he was educated in” - Will Rogers

11. 4.1 Fallacies of Relevance RELEVANTA statement is RELEVANT to another statement if it provides at least some reason for thinking that the second statement is true or false. There are three ways in which a statement can be relevant or irrelevant to another: –A statement is positively relevant to another statement if it provides at least some reason for thinking that the second statement is true. –A statement is negatively relevant to another statement if it provides at least some reason for thinking that the second statement is false. –A statement is logically irrelevant to another statement if it provides no reason for thinking that the second statement is either true or false.

12. 4.1 Fallacies of Relevance Personal Attack Appeal to Pity Attacking the Motive Bandwagon Argument Look Who’s Talking Straw Man Begging the Question Red Herring Scare Tactics Equivocation Two Wrongs Make a Right

13. 4.1.1 Personal Attack Example: Professor Doogie has argued for more emphasis on music to facilitate creativity. But Doogie is a selfish bigheaded fool. I absolutely refuse to listen to him. Personal Attack/Ad Hominem When an arguer rejects a person’s argument or claim by attacking the person’s character rather than examining the worth of the argument or claim itself. Personal Attack/Ad Hominem When an arguer rejects a person’s argument or claim by attacking the person’s character rather than examining the worth of the argument or claim itself. 1. X is a bad person. 2. Therefore X's argument must be bad. Pattern

14. 4.1.2 Attacking the Motive Example: The Senator claims that congressional salaries should be raised. He says business executives doing comparable work make much more and that congressional salaries haven't kept pace with inflation. But keep in mind what he does for a living. His self-serving recommendation must be rejected. Attacking the Motive When an arguer criticizes a person’s motivation for offering a particular argument or claim, rather than examining the worth of the argument or claim itself. Attacking the Motive When an arguer criticizes a person’s motivation for offering a particular argument or claim, rather than examining the worth of the argument or claim itself. 1.X has biased or has questionable motives. 2.Therefore, X’s arguments or claim should be rejected 2.Therefore, X’s arguments or claim should be rejected. Pattern

15. 4.1.3 Look Who’s Talking Example: Doctor: You should quit smoking. Patient: Look who’s talking! I’ll quit when you do, Dr. Smokestack! How can you tell me I should exercise to lose weight? All you do is sit behind a desk all day. I've never seen you do a lick of exercise Look Who’s Talking (tu quoque) When an arguer rejects another person’s argument or claim because that person is a hypocrite. Look Who’s Talking (tu quoque) When an arguer rejects another person’s argument or claim because that person is a hypocrite. 1.X fails to follow his or her own advice. 2.Therefore, X’s claim or argument should be rejected. Pattern

16. 4.1.4 Two Wrongs Make a Right Examples: “I don’t feel guilty about cheating on the quiz. Half the class cheats.” “Why pick on me, officer? Everyone else is using drugs.” Two Wrongs Make a Right When an arguer attempts to justify a wrongful act by claiming that some other act is just as bad or worse. Two Wrongs Make a Right When an arguer attempts to justify a wrongful act by claiming that some other act is just as bad or worse. 1. Others are committing worse or equally bad acts. 2. Therefore my wrongful act is justified. Pattern

17. 4.1.5 Scare Tactics Example: Diplomat to diplomat: I’m sure you’ll agree that we are the rightful rulers of the Iraq. It would be regrettable if we had to send armed forces to demonstrate the validity of our claim. Scare Tactics When an arguer threatens harm to a reader or listener and this threat is irrelevant to the truth of the arguer’s conclusion. Scare Tactics When an arguer threatens harm to a reader or listener and this threat is irrelevant to the truth of the arguer’s conclusion. Fear is a powerful motivator Fear is a powerful motivator – so powerful that it often causes us to think and behave irrationally. Remember

18. 4.1.6 Appeal to Pity Example: Student to Lecturer: I know I missed half your classes and failed all my quizzes and assignments. First my cat died. Then my girlfriend told me she has found someone else. With all I went through this semester, I don’t think I really deserve an F. Any chance you might cut me some slack and change my grade to a C or a D? Appeal to Pity When an arguer attempts to evoke feelings of pity or compassion, where such feelings, however understandable, are not relevant to the truth of the arguer’s conclusion. Appeal to Pity When an arguer attempts to evoke feelings of pity or compassion, where such feelings, however understandable, are not relevant to the truth of the arguer’s conclusion. 1.P is presented, with the intent to create pity. 2. Therefore claim C is true. Pattern

19. 4.1.7 Bandwagon Argument Example: All the really cool students smoke cigarettes. Therefore, you should, too. Bandwagon Argument (Peer Pressure) When an arguer appeals to a person’s desire to be popular, accepted, or valued, rather than to logically relevant reasons or evidence. Bandwagon Argument (Peer Pressure) When an arguer appeals to a person’s desire to be popular, accepted, or valued, rather than to logically relevant reasons or evidence. 1. Most (or a select group of) people believe or do X. 2. Therefore, you should believe or do X. Pattern

20. 4.1.8 Straw Man Example: Singh and Karen are arguing about cleaning out their closets:  Suzie: "We should clean out the closets. They are getting a bit messy.“  Singh: "Why, we just went through those closets last year. Do we have to clean them out everyday?"  Suzie: "I never said anything about cleaning them out every day. You just want too keep all your junk forever, which is just ridiculous." Straw Man When an arguer misrepresents another person’s position to make it easier to attack. Straw Man When an arguer misrepresents another person’s position to make it easier to attack. 1. Person A has position X. 2. Person B presents position Y (which is a distorted version of X). 3. Person B attacks position Y. 4. Therefore X is false/incorrect/flawed. Pattern

21. 4.1.9 Red Herring Example: "I think there is great merit in making the requirements stricter for the graduation. I recommend that you support it, too. After all, we are in a budget crisis and we do not want our salaries affected." Red Herring When an arguer tries to sidetrack his audience by raising an irrelevant issue, and then claims that the original issue has been effectively settled by the irrelevant diversion. Red Herring When an arguer tries to sidetrack his audience by raising an irrelevant issue, and then claims that the original issue has been effectively settled by the irrelevant diversion. 1. Topic A is under discussion. 1. Topic A is under discussion. 2. Topic B is introduced under the guise of being relevant to topic A (when topic B is actually not relevant to topic A). 3. Topic A is abandoned. 2. Topic B is introduced under the guise of being relevant to topic A (when topic B is actually not relevant to topic A). 3. Topic A is abandoned. Pattern

22. 4.1.10 Equivocation Example: In the summer of 1940, Londoners were bombed almost every night. To be bombed is to be intoxicated. Therefore, in the summer of 1940, Londoners were intoxicated almost every night. Hot dogs are better than nothing Nothing is better than steak. Therefore, hot dogs are better than steak. Equivocation When an arguer uses a key word in an argument in two (or more) different senses.Equivocation When an arguer uses a key word in an argument in two (or more) different senses. Fallacies of Equivocation Fallacies of Equivocation can be difficult to spot because they often appear valid, but they aren’t. Remember

23. 4.1.11 Begging the Question Example: I am entitled to say whatever I choose because I have a right to say whatever I please. Begging the Question When an arguer states or assumes as a premise (reason) the very thing he is seeking to probe as a conclusion. Begging the Question When an arguer states or assumes as a premise (reason) the very thing he is seeking to probe as a conclusion. Arguing in a circle Arguing in a circle – A because B, B because A. Reason

24. I'm trying hard to understand this guy who identifies himself as a security supervisor and criticizes the police officers in this area. I can only come up with two solutions. One, he is either a member of the criminal element, or two, he is a frustrated security guard who can never make it as a police officer and figures he can take cheap shots at cops through the newspaper (adapted from a newspaper call-in column). Which fallacy? A)Loaded Question B)Personal Attack C)Bandwagon Argument D)Scare Tactics 4.1 Mini Quiz – Question 1

25. The Red Cross is worried about the treatment of the suspected terrorists held by the U.S. at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. What do they want the U.S. to do with them, put them on the beaches of Florida for a vacation or take them skiing in the Rockies? Come on, let's worry about the Americans. (adapted from a newspaper call-in column) Which fallacy? A)Bandwagon Argument B)Personal Attack C)Straw Man D)Scare Tactics 4.1 Mini Quiz – Question 2

26. “ The foolish and the dead alone never change their opinion.” - James Russell Lowell

27. 4.2 Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence Arguments in which the premises, though logically relevant to the conclusion, fail to provide sufficient evidence to support the conclusion.

28. 4.2 Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence Inappropriate Appeal to Authority Questionable Cause Appeal to Ignorance Slippery Slope False Alternatives Weak Analogy Loaded Question Inconsistency Hasty Generalizations

29. 4.2.1 Inappropriate Appeal to Authority Example: My dentist told me that aliens built the lost city of Atlantis. So, it’s reasonable to believe that aliens did build the lost city of Atlantis. Inappropriate Appeal to Authority Citing a witness or authority that is untrustworthy. Inappropriate Appeal to Authority Citing a witness or authority that is untrustworthy. Authority Assessment 1.Is the source an authority on the subject at issue? 2.Is the source biased? 3.Is the accuracy of the source observations questionable? 4.Is the source known to be generally unreliable? 5.Has the source been cited correctly? 6.Does the source’s claim conflict with expert opinion? 7.Can the source’s claim be settled by an appeal to expert opinion? 8.Is the claim highly improbable on its face? Tips

30. 4.2.2 Appeal to Ignorance Example: I’ve never seen a rainbow, so there’s no such thing. Yoda must exist. No one has proved that he doesn’t exist. Appeal to Ignorance Claiming that something is true because no one has proven it false or vice versa. Appeal to Ignorance Claiming that something is true because no one has proven it false or vice versa. “Not proven, therefore false” If such reasoning were allowed, we could prove almost any conclusion. Remember Agree I do!

31. 4.2.3 False Alternatives Example: The choice in this election is clear: Either we elect my candidate as our next president, or we watch our country slide into anarchy and frustration. Clearly, we don’t want that to happen. Therefore, we should elect my candidate as our next president. False Alternatives Posing a false either/or choice. False Alternatives Posing a false either/or choice. Fallacy of false alternatives more than Fallacy of false alternatives can involve more than two (2) alternatives two (2) alternatives. It can also be expressed as a (if-then) conditional (if-then) statement. Remember

32. 4.2.4 Loaded Question Example: Lee: Are you still friends with that loser Richard? Ali: Yes. Lee: Well, at least you admit he’s a total loser. Loaded Question Posing a question that contains an unfair or unwarranted presupposition. Loaded Question Posing a question that contains an unfair or unwarranted presupposition. To respond to a loaded question effectively, To respond to a loaded question effectively, one must distinguish the different questions being asked and respond to each individually. Tip

33. 4.2.5 Questionable Cause Example: Sarah gets a chain letter that threatens her with dire consequences if she breaks the chain. She laughs at it and throws it in the garbage. On her way to work she slips and breaks her arm. When she gets back from the hospital she sends out 200 copies of the chain letter, hoping to avoid further accidents. Questionable Cause Claiming, without sufficient evidence, that one thing is the cause of something else. Questionable Cause Claiming, without sufficient evidence, that one thing is the cause of something else. 1. A and B are associated on a regular basis. 2. Therefore A is the cause of B. Pattern

34. 4.2.6 Hasty Generalization Example: Norwegians are lazy. I have two friends who are from there, and both of them never prepare for class, or do their homework. All teenagers are rude and disrespectful. Hasty Generalization Drawing a general conclusion from a sample that is biased or too small. Hasty Generalization Drawing a general conclusion from a sample that is biased or too small. biased 1. A biased sample is one that is not representative of the target population. target population 2. The target population is the group of people or things that the generalization is about. stereotypes 3. Hasty generalizations can often lead to false stereotypes. Pattern

35. 4.2.7 Slippery Slope Examples: “The militarily shouldn't get involved in other countries. Once the government sends in a few troops, it will then send in thousands to die." If 10 th graders are allowed to go out for lunch, they will be late to class, fail out of school and become wandering vagrants. Slippery Slope Claiming, without sufficient evidence, that a seemingly harmless action, if taken, will lead to a disastrous outcome. Slippery Slope Claiming, without sufficient evidence, that a seemingly harmless action, if taken, will lead to a disastrous outcome. 1.The arguer claims that if a certain seemingly harmless action, A, is permitted, A will lead to B, B will lead to C, and so on to D. 2.The arguer holds that D is a terrible thing and therefore should not be permitted. 3.In fact, there is no good reason to believe that A will actually lead to D. Pattern