1. By Sarah Chapple, Jenn Matheson and Jamie Lee Wirtz

2. Learning Stages The three stages of learning devised by Fitts and Posner (1967) include the cognitive stage, the associative stage and the autonomous stage. The three stages of learning devised by Fitts and Posner (1967) include the cognitive stage, the associative stage and the autonomous stage.

3. Cognitive Stage Cognitive stage is signified by a large percentage of errors, and a large scope for improvement. Cognitive stage is signified by a large percentage of errors, and a large scope for improvement. Feedback during this stage is vital for the development of the skill. Feedback during this stage is vital for the development of the skill. A positive learning environment is optimal, with need of demonstrations, and feedback A positive learning environment is optimal, with need of demonstrations, and feedback

4. Cognitive stage continued… The performance gains during this period are dramatic – more so than the other two stages. The performance gains during this period are dramatic – more so than the other two stages. The rates of progress differ for each individual. The rates of progress differ for each individual. Relationships with other sports are optimal at this beginning stage. Relationships with other sports are optimal at this beginning stage.

5. Associative Stage Practice stage – athletes may never leave this stage Practice stage – athletes may never leave this stage Schmidt and Wrisberg (1991) describe the associative stage as, ‘having solved most of their strategic or cognitive problems and having a general idea of what the movement is like.’ Schmidt and Wrisberg (1991) describe the associative stage as, ‘having solved most of their strategic or cognitive problems and having a general idea of what the movement is like.’ Make less major errors in performance. Make less major errors in performance.

6. Associative Stage continued… Movements less rushed and appear to be more coordinated. Movements less rushed and appear to be more coordinated. Self talk is limited before/during performance Self talk is limited before/during performance Can detect some of own errors, but will still need specific feedback. Can detect some of own errors, but will still need specific feedback. Teach skills in a progressive manner and also vary the practice conditions – this will increase the skill level of the students and help them to adapt to more realistic situations. Teach skills in a progressive manner and also vary the practice conditions – this will increase the skill level of the students and help them to adapt to more realistic situations.

7. Autonomous Stage Final phase- not all learners reach this level Final phase- not all learners reach this level ‘Automatic’, without conscious thought ‘Automatic’, without conscious thought Ability to concentrate on other aspects of their performance (e.g. strategy, other players) Ability to concentrate on other aspects of their performance (e.g. strategy, other players) Less errors Less errors

8. Autonomous Stage continued… Internal & Concurrent Feedback Internal & Concurrent Feedback Can detect and fix their own errors Can detect and fix their own errors Kinesthetic sense Kinesthetic sense

9. Classification of Motor Skills Majority of skills tend to focus around three (3) basic areas; - How precise a movement is (fine/gross) - Whether the movement has a definite beginning and end (discrete/continuous/serial) - Whether the environment affects the performance of the skill (open/closed, internally/self or externally paced) (Courtney & Thompson, 2000., Schmidt & Lee, 1999).

11. Discrete Skills Skills in which there is a distinct and recognisable beginning and end (Sage, 1984). Skills in which there is a distinct and recognisable beginning and end (Sage, 1984). Eg. kicking a ball and firing a rifle Eg. kicking a ball and firing a rifle

12. Serial Skills Serial skills have an identifiable beginning and end however the skills are performed in a particular sequence which is crucial to the correct execution of the skill (Sage, 1984). Serial skills have an identifiable beginning and end however the skills are performed in a particular sequence which is crucial to the correct execution of the skill (Sage, 1984). Eg. gymnastics or a dance routine Eg. gymnastics or a dance routine

13. Continuous Skills Continuous skills are those made up of repetitive movements. In these skills the beginning and end of the movement is determined by the Continuous skills are those made up of repetitive movements. In these skills the beginning and end of the movement is determined by the performer, not the performer, not the constraints of the skill constraints of the skill (McGill, 1980). (McGill, 1980). Eg. running, cycling Eg. running, cycling and skiing and skiing

15. Gross Motor Skills Gross motor skills are characterised by large muscles used for execution. Gross motor skills are characterised by large muscles used for execution. They are found in sports such as running, diving, and tackling. They are found in sports such as running, diving, and tackling.

16. Fine Motor Skills Fine motor skills are activities using a small muscle group. They are found in activities that require small finesse movement. Fine motor skills are activities using a small muscle group. They are found in activities that require small finesse movement. An example of this could be darts. An example of this could be darts.

18. Open Skills Performed in an unpredictable, dynamic environment Little control over the play For example; SPARRING IN KARATE. The individuals are both unaware of what move their opponent is going to make, therefore performing skills in an environment that is always changing., making it very difficult to execute skills precisely.

19. Closed Skills Stable and predicable environment For Example; Squash/Tennis Serve Control over when and how they choose to serve the ball.

20. Open/Closed Continuum Open ___________________________ Closed Unpredictable Semi-predictable Predictable Not always simple to determine whether a skill is open/closed, rather it is located somewhere along the continuum.

21. Externally Paced Skills Closely linked to open skills In an environment where the pace of play is controlled by others For example; Soccer Goalkeeping The goalie is unaware of when or how the ball is going to be delivered to them, this is determined by the other players on the field.

22. Internally Paced Skills Also known as ‘Self-paced’ Closely linked to closed skills Performer is able to have control over the play For Example; Golf swing The performer can execute the skill at their own pace